Skip to main content

Full text of "What mean these stones?"

See other formats 


GOVERNMENT OF INDIA 
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY 

CENTRAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL 
LIBRARY 


Calx No.. q/3.33 JW 














* 









■itS? - 


JUQCSHM: i . , : STOftE. 

4&-U jL J inpath, 
Hew l>dh% 

Pk*M 






ff'iW Mcan These Stoner? 


T€Pr SXA 



IUCH 






















Tlw L'unil llMTTI]AULlll 1 ‘S'Tr II, Jp 51- 







WHAT MEAN THESE STONES? 


6901 



The Significance of A rcheofagy 


Stbdiei 


by MILLAR BURROWS 


m-33 

Burr 



2X0 

&UJY- 



MKRIDIAN BOOKS 1057 
THAMES AND HUDSON LONDON 






Millar Burrows 


Millar Barrelws has been Professor of HUj ii■ 4LI Theology at Yale 
University sjn^f Sindf 1950 he has also L«ii dainnan of 

the D-eprt rtmenl of Near Eastern I nonages and LiL«ritum. He b 
a gnuJtmLe of Cornell University ( BJk* 1912} and Union Theo¬ 
logical Seminary (B.C. 1915) and ramrod his Pb.D, mt Yale m 
1925, Before hi* iettore ai V ole, he taught ml Brown University, 
He served os Visiting Professor of Religion at [he Americmn 
Unfrcraty of Beirut in I930-3L In 1951-32 and 194748 Ite 
waa Director of the American Schools of Oriental Research for 
fifteen years i 195448 L He is a Fellow of the Americmn Academy 
of Arts and Sciences and a member of several learned societies. 
His latest honk. The Bead Sea Strolls* was published in 1955. 


Itwng Age Books Edition published February 1957 by Meridian 
Books* ltlC L 

First printing January £957 
Copyright '' £956 by Millar Burrows 

Copyright 1 1941 by American School of Oriental Research 

Reprinted by arrangement wkh American Schools of Oriental 
Research 

Libra? of Coagren Catalog Card Number ; 57-6676 
Manuf'ietttfr'i in the United States of .Imtritit 



CENTRAL ARCHAEOLQGIGAb 
LIBRARY, NEW DLi -HL 
Acu. Ko . CHqI. 

Ufiico.,. 

CaH No., 


TO 

G. L B- *-kd E. G- B. 


Tfi Lt« bravdy in |he ivuent, 

*n>J wVtk wi*tl y fdf ibc future. 

“ ftfmmfcff (At rigyt c/ flW. 

EOMtfo^ f A* *«'! flf ■!«* 

(DtCTHO^OMT 32: T) 













PREFACE 


Tie author of this volume speaks not u an areheolopal but u i 
student of the Bible who hn had tomewknt unusual opportunities for 
acquaintance with archrciloguU and their work. While his personal 
apetkfiCt in. enVitkm W riighl. he ha* been closely M™at*d with 
archeological cDtoprwf m the lands af the Bible, both u director of 
the American School of Oriental Research in Jerusalem lel 1031-* and W 
pfE^deot of Ihc Am*rk»n Schools of Oriental H^cafch (Jerusalem wd 
Baghdad) since l&ft*. Ai a teacher of biblical history. literature, and 
theology he has found it nccesMEy a^ain and again to interpret, evaluate, 
and apply iirheologKal discoveries, in so doing K v has come lo fwl that 
a great deal of current writing oft archeology and the Bible (flisies the 
mark, KrDR Ibis effort In pul the whole nlltl#r in its true light. There 
ia nothing original m the book ludtti it b th= way things which belong 
together are brought together. and their Mationsb ips and meanings arr 
thus clarified. 

Only readers concerned with the religions values of the Bible will find 
anything of Lnterw! irt these pages. Til* volume has been written with 
a frankly and definitely religious interest, ft has *lw, of count, been 
written from a particular religious point of view, that of a liberal Ffotea- 
tj>n t Christian. At the umt time tie facts pivOenlcd and much of the 
interpretation put upon them will, it u hoped, be helpful to Catholic and 
Jewish students of the Bibie and to Protcsti-fLU whose theological pre- 
npjwsltwui differ from those of Ihc author. Otherwise Ihc book would 
not have- been deemed suitable for publication by such a cvDpwitivc, 
hoft-Mttanin LEislitution at Ule American Schools of Oriental Research. 

No attempt has been tnadt lo give ait exhaustive acroftftl or even a 
catalogue of ail the pertinent material. Only a very limited selection 
haa b«n made to establish and dliutraLe the point* which the author 
4«imi to bring nut. Naturally no two writer* would make the same 
selection. All that Cal* be expected ia that the material chosen be xeprr- 
acntalive and tha L Ihc tisc made of it be fair and accurate. In presenting 
even this sampling of the immense body of fact* Mt available il has 
been found ceera«ny to eondcose considerably. 

In the interest gf economy documentation hn been restricted almost 
to a minimum. wtLh a few exorpltotis in r«wi of special interest. Much 
apace has been laved by the method of citing references by ahbteVRfelwni 
m parnuheia. which tiw author hope* will not prove too annoying to 
hb readers- Full rtfer^no* to primary sources have eftrfl been avoided 
by brief indications of secondary sources- where fuller bibliographical 








xn 


infcrnifttH]]] »n bf found, Sf the discriminating rvadrr qdLm a diipro- 
trartLvnnlc number ftf trfrreiwra to publ Lent bus of the American School* 
of Oriental Rwarch. the reason far this f« dot that the booh is Indued 
by tbc Americari Schoob of OrbnUl Research but nimbly that tiieSe 
publications 4-rr readily accessible to the American rrsdcr rmrl give full 
biblia^phii'i! guidance for t hose desiring it. A few suggestions for 
further rending vll be found if the end of (he hook. 

The effort to conserve spar* and no keep *U >wn the price at which the 
beck can be sold has led also to (he umiMsicni from the indict of ilema 
which can be easily located by the table of contents LNJsnir* of dtitb, 
for eiansple, are omitted, because the Special secliups devoted to gods 
and goddrs-les arc indicated in (he tabic of content*. Since the volume 
ks not intended for tprculiib, diacritical marks have in general been 
Omitted in the transliteration of names, 

W blEc of course the book U not nil it should be, ila Fudti are certainly 
hot d up to any Udt of competent aisbtaucc. The an tbof it under deep 
obligation So ha good friends W. F Albright* II. J. Cadbury* R. M. 
Engbergn and E„ A. Speiset, each of whom has read the entire teat and 
giveq valuable corrections and sugge,(ions. For such errors of statement 
and judgment as remain the author alone is r^potasibLe. Dr. Eugbcrg 
has also been of great help in selecting and pJv^pL&fmg the illustrations, 
The line-drawings fur figure* tf. 7. U, 13, I?, £7-$l r 3M, and the two 
rrupn are hb work, ft is a pleasure In acknowledge also the writer's 
indebtedness lo his wife for help in the preparation of the indie**, to hu 
™ {i}t ^ typifls ff the Whole volume, and to his fiefteiary, Mrs. ff, B. 
\Vattop ( for much clerical assistance GriteM acknowledBrncot is 
hereby made of the courtly of the Orie&tal Institute of the University 
of Chicago, the Palestine Inslituteof the Pacific School of Religion, and 
the British Royal Air Fonrc (through its rrprrentativt in Washington) 
fat pcrmujrion to use illusirat ions and in several eases for the loan of 
(heir original cuts. Last hut nut least the author wouM express JiU 
appreciation of th* honor conferred upon him by the I rosters of th* 
American Schools of Oriental Research in voting, quit* without solicita¬ 
tion Qr suggestion from him, to include this volume among their 
publications. 

Ih limes like these Uhr is tempted to apologize for offering a book 
on such a subject as biblical archeology. Vet when waa the Bible more 
needed, and when was a true understanding nf it more vitally im¬ 
portant, and when could any help to this end be more timely ? 


Millm Bumdwb 


CONTENTS 


wmm 

Lmr or ItLiiBrsiAnows iv 

cittrtE k 

I. IfJTfM&LTTTOrf 1 

Iti^LiiiijCi Uni bul«7 (ll rial; ik ]W3rpa» of uvktkgF [II H- 

11 )- r ajclrakwical- mrltrod [If 14-lflJ; mil trial* at *rrb«Juf jf (I] 
mtfrr^'CalP'n fltf UYtrolsfkxl' "him** fIf KM). 

II. Text A?m LucuErAira 30 

MubtiEr^iii ttiui Ititml nultrimli ill iS-Sftf; Llurtf brnriiif rm lU 
Lfit iif the HiUr ril 31*^; lire laii-gu-Lfj** J tkr H'lilf iff M W., 

date anil runapfctilwn ■-*[ Uir feooLa nl ! Iv Pdik ill 4A-S). 

TIL GOOUI. ORIENTATION tftf 

ill **-»). rittliiJafQr ill IWfflj pcbi*4 Anr| rirl^r^ 

tha Brauf A.ft til lie Lpwi Aft (|| T3-IHH tit 

IlflkrjulH- and Htimun perioda ■.11 IlMk 

TV. Material an& Sccvxai Bianmnip 110 

Hum <11 rr-H)i frrTlLfcBtinni ill ***P*M *M 1 ,»l4- + ||| 

104-107]; rvtiw.T? flf fltkf rtiari. uhd nCmifa (f l HU 

'Ptfevak life (II 114-|T>4 tdmiica, EifcriAtmt, aad ihhhi fit JIS- 

tJH Ik IK. ill Nf-ftii 1 tatdrt ud Ekriliisf (I Irti 

RELiGiDLis asd Ethical BacK.su OUND 19B 

T«spJta ill S5&A); HfNd ebjKli (H l»41l; (Mb (II II1J1); 

<1 53 tf)j nL« ami inti ilvlieifi ilf 1 -li-fl l, iwriiJ afcrd ti» 

bernfliCT ill 147-MI; mcuI ht> 1 awl kMt (II 1*4 -*>h 

ifi 


V, 






I i J 


lie DOSTEm 

rjua 

VI, EsmsAiioK, Illustration. ami Evaluation iUO 

E-EplmutKxi v>4 tniorninl h - ^ 111 HUI-TS.i^ iHuiiimlKX] 

Ull 17B-9I15 ptvhkw* bj lixlinJiACP HI 15S-11J mmrtioo nl 

iV BU. (It I*M)l ^Srmaiios rf ihr BUt mi SH&S5: «™ *n4 

ol tlw DLLLf (If •** ™T™ t* l»U 

mb»lofjr ftmt irriCMTJTD i E Ifljf. 

ApitmATtavH 293 

SoravanoKK nut Fcbtiich Stl'ftr 29$ 

or ftatAfiN* astd SmArncra 297 

or Places Ml 

Or ^mm jtAL RKrouXcts 393 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


FrontiifKrt-Tk Cuiih IjUtfipUtu. 

Ftrnr 

I. Miifiw I'wwiK UpEincl IU1 *j l& 

i. Buiilelinp In,vm|h1.nwi from Jkwmah il 

3. DjTiiijr PLuit (?) it Brth-idr U 

i Cities C4^iipd by Shohak, Karoak 

J A tfitii Tabkt PI 

4 TfelPW TfftH of Ancim! Komic 11B 

t, TV PJih As )« 

B. Efotp* of Tdl Brit Minin G 111 

3. FaIv <al T-ell Brit Minim D 1*1 

10. Pmt^Iufwr Cipiul MrfidJi. 1U 

11. PtJMl of 338 li Mrj|id<Ui 1*9 

It, R^JlniPlJoo H.f MrtkUo City Wall -Hl4 HuibliRI 338 1« 

|3. AfKilbrr Rrram.il rurt iull of Mrjfwj.1t. ft u kitting 33* lit 

14 width SUbk* 

13 . Mrfpddk.) Rwooiinsrikm I*S 

10. "AMait* Trtsn^, M Tdt m Nmjbrh 130 

17, Thtrr of Stwchrm *33 

Ifl. Ilui tiE Saul"* C*allf fll t'i-iLhra.h Ht 

IB. GiEtfriy of EaoB-fpbcr I** 

». Moabite tMrr F«tr™ 

11. Plus City TeB et-SuMi 

« City Gate. Tdl ™ Naibdi ■« 

13. Eitmof Wall of lh« Foftrtitt tw Qim Baftafeeh I St 

if. A SqiiiUT Rummih Camp in T™ujuhi*n IS* 

is, TJw Fort™ Antcifiia ,w 

*«, Fnprtli of PaiisE*! Poltrfy. Eariy KnM Pmtd 100 

tfl, Typird FMttty of the L*rt> Art in P*te*tior 101 

ifl. Tj E »cd Pottery of Ibr MidnSIr Bfuimp Afft in rdrttEw Iflt 

««, Tjpinl Pollery (4 the Late Bro™ Aff in Patertin* 104 

30, PhllbEiihf Pdlrfy ls * 

3| r Typical Portly of tlw Forty Tma Ap in PifcdiM W 

tv 




ft f 


LIPT Q* ILLL’FrfcATKHSB 


tamp vitli Pedtitii ind Seven SpnyU. ud Pottery Csn«r f Eira’ 

FMl 



inf 

Typwil Pottery of ihe MiHdlc Iron ^ tn PaMiu 


m 

Typk»l Potieiy of the L«ir Imn Ajjp in PwHliw 


IflB 

NibiUrm Pottery 


nn 

Frxrmrni J** «jih Smith Atibjt bieriptiffi Siw F-iuin^bfr 

i n 

Ibimtirtl iSmew- Wpijj-ht, Tell m-S'ubrb 


m 

JewiiJl C«pu Inm. Brtlfcd 


it» 

Stil of Jot ham fhin Etiflft-ffl»T 


S F, L 

ClMVIitr Cmmrtic Spftjfl, Brth-ntr 


191 

tvnwy Cirvifil fttffil Mefktdd 


111 

Snl Cyliodtf IfBjtftMiw. Kiriills iEphcf 


1*3 

Sr«nb, Kiriiili-ifpl^ r 


1*3 

Eutem Shrine, Ttfe Gmwrm X 1 II 


IH 

Iunnur IlUTPfr. Ueptldu 


W4 

Tirtiplr ol Artnnii, JcfajJi 


fOJ 

Nabninmn Stiw. Khirhel rt-Tamror 



Syn*0pjifur InscripIbcrfL of TlwoikVUa 


*» 

HdFtW fnmite Alter. tfepeMo 



Nahml mf j:i InnrfJ**' Alter. Klurbet et-Tnjinu r 


*1& 

Slrnt'iic Bow), Kriillbwflief 


*14 

LuitntuiK Cult Yr^prl. Kinj.tll-wpfirt 


ai3 

SwpenK. Stl^n Kirial b-sepbef 


*17 

AlupLw. klnrbri el-Tabnnr 


am 

Aftnric PlAqoMi Kirutti-wiihrr 



\ttartf SpmI Cylinder lin|n iwfrju, Betln-l 


*34 

“ Yehudi h Coin 


aa* 

Unclitc H^fflnulh Jin 


*M 

Mmjj ijf ihrt in PnWtin* 

E*d # heat* 

Map of Ktl» in Syria and lrt£) 

End jifrti 


JLud fA* people e&mt Ilf oat f]/ Jordan on l!lr ff+ir.h airy flf (4e 
jfnli TwcntA. rmd tnttmpfd P" Cdffal. im (At rail harder ft/ JtritMtr. 
Amd fAair lurWtr iplAi fArj fooi mrr of Jordan r did Jnwh Lift 

I#e up in Gtff df. And Al wrifo fAe tAiidrrm of firtd, kj urip. 

IFAra fOHf chddrrm lA^ «t tkfir fatkj'n in Miif tn rtinr, HTfnj, 
JO*f tnrtn ri/« ifiMijrf Iri fur fAiWflM tnilf, 

JiiyiKf. firwf HH# o^r fAiJ Iordan Q'l dinji laud. 

JoNH* 4; 







W r hnt Their Stones? 














Chapter ] 


INTRODUCTION 

I. Cbfiidu tit nil i h'.i-. alvi^'ii recorded the Bible as Ihe Word nf fkid. 
For Protestantism, which rejects Ihe milbrilv of the Church tnd irwpti 
only the BEbEe as its authority* ihe hi vine inspiration of the Scriptures 
LS especially important. During the past two centuries, however., this 
beikf lias- been mainlaiDcd with increasing difficulty. Modem leienee 
hia developed new views of the origin and nature of the universe which 
conflict with the story oF Creation ami the Fall in Genesis and pul belief 
in, mitafies on the deferiHtve. Intensive study of the Bible itxtf han mid* 
further trouble. The critical methods ilcvdopd in the study of ancient 
history and the classics have been applied to the study or the Bible with 
such disturbing multi that "higher critic ism " ha? h*Cnt»e for many 
Chrtstiaaj synonymous with in 6 del it y. In the church at large She sense 
oi the unique and supreme importance of the Bible as divine revelation 
has undoubtedly declined- It :ti true that of late a reaction has id in. 
Rudely awalteoed by the catastrophes of years to the failutc of 

man's devices, many have turned again to the Word ol God as the only 
hope of the wnrid. All the more imperative is a fresh examination nf the 
truth nod value of the Btbk m the light of every bit of relevant knowl¬ 
edge we can command. 

¥. While dhampintiK of the Bible have commonly treated the sciences 
as foes which had to be either destroyed or subdued and harnessed to 
the service of the Faith, ofte scientific discipline has been a conspicuous 
exception to this rule. Archeology ha? been claimed as a potent ally, 
and lummooed in the help of the Lord against the mighty. Defenders 
of the Faith have made much of the confirmation of Scripture by the 
mutts of excavation. Popular booki and articles on this theme are 
appearing constantly. To be sure, archeological discoveries are not 
always leawurmg. A* a matter of Jact, they have raised some very 
perplexing question?. On the whole, however, archeological work has 
unquestionably strengthened confidence iu the reliability of the Scrip¬ 
tural record- More than one archeologist baa found his respect for the 
Bible increased by the experience oF excavation in Palestine, 

Naturally this fact has aroused Considerable interval among Bible 
rtudeaU, but unfortunately most of them have only the most huy 
idea* regarding the relation of archeology to the Bible- A vague notion 

1 


WHAT M ELAN TUSE aTfltfEli* 


Ill M) 


* 

thill the details of the Scriptural record ane being confirmed ilep by 
ttcp with each new discovery ha* berome rather widespread, and most 
fKople are content with Iliat. Mnrr wrWUi is Ibe fart that writer* fired 
by ieal without knowledge have rushed into print with inaccurate stale- 
men doubt Jess intended for the of Cmi but none the tf&i 

leading and therefore mbtchsevtiu^ Sermons are being preached in 
which almost incredibly reckless ainutiotlfl are made. To cite exam¬ 
ples Would be easy but odious. Only loss of respect for the church and 
the ministry, if not for the Bible emit be the result of such writ¬ 

ing and preaching. Reverence for the Bible cannot be pemnanenlly 
promoted by making cbiims on ils behalf whieb will later prove unirue. 

ft in high lime that a sober appimrtal be made of the nature, extent, 
and Limit* of Ibe actual contribution which aiclttotoftv makes Id our 
understanding aad appreciation of ibe Bible. Kc liable surveys of ibe 
hiitwy of a echtnluKv rn the lands of I he Bible and compilili&ni pf 
archeological maleriala bearing nn ibe Bible have bent made and arc 
accessible for all who rare to make u*ft of them fwe Bibliography, p. 
£8$) An important task, however, still fares us. Previous diN-usdim* 
have presented a great deal of infuttn3ili»n in chronological order, or 
according 10 a logical classification of Ihe material, but there hits limn 
no thorough drsmssron of the ultimate i mpf icat+ona of all Ibis as regard* 
Ihe Bible.' To analyze the contributions which archeology can 
expected to mike and haj made to biblical slushes and Ip determine 
their actual beating pq ibe vafue and significance of the Bible u the 
purpose of the present book. 

3. To see right Iy the relation between archeology and the Bible one 
must bear In mind whal the Bible is. H \\ not merely a eolleelbn of 
source-material for ancient history Of murse it is that, a very impor< 
Uni collection indeed im the historian. For the rest of us also this 
element, in the Bible is not without jiignifiCarHce. Whatever importance 
and interest any history hu. the history of the ancient Hebrews and 
early Chrisltans possesses in high degree- Far the undemanding of 
human life in general and the roots of our own dvdsimtion in particular 
nothing ts more important. 

We are also interested in the Bible as literature, notable fur its mag¬ 
nificent prose and poetry, inlerpreling human nature and experience 
with profound insight and in various farm*. Whatever interest and 

T Tb* lUffiEkm " irliit Hit rf hdp mar rd H f™ h 

danisitri id S£BA JS B 


i ll 


If* | RCKHJCTTq pS 


a 

value may hr found tn tay litcmtuK is b be found in the Bibb. Beauty 
erF Jjinghif[e a.Eld form, ilnimalic narrative,, vivid description, depth of 
feeling, insight into human nature and rh^nrUr, profound interpret*- 
liaa of the iua^ of tiff and death, all that mikn any litrm! ure great, 
is here. Nor is this insignificant for religion. tie who reflects on the 
dose relations of art and worship an Ihc nut hini of philosophy and 
faith an the at her, will not uwi to be told that the Bible gains incalcu¬ 
lably in power of spiritual inspiration by being caft in varied and 
beautiful literary farms and by being a source of accurate historical 
knowledge. 

At the vvmc time (be fscrl remains that the primary purpose of the 
biblical writer* wjm neither historical nor literary, but religious- His¬ 
torical fact is used in the Bible for the leswna it teaches. Literary 
powrr and beauty are ministers of spiritual truth. We too. a* we read 
the Bible, are not so much concerned with what happened in the tenth 
ftntury B.t’. as with what may be teamed from it for the twentieth 
century A- IX Our study o! the historical books as welt as the Psalms, 
the prophets, the laws* epUtles, iml Wisdom literature, finds its ulti¬ 
mate vline in what ill thrt men.in for OUT life and destiny, oast place in 
the universe, our relation to the Power that rules the Universe, The 
Bible it of lasting and supreme importance to us btfaU** above all It 
it the record anil deposit of great spiritual experiences, through wfciefe 
has been given ever deeper insight into the thing* of the spirit. In other 
words, the primary value of the Bible far ui is Its value as revelation. 
Thus in different way* the Bible appeals to the student of history, the 
lover of literature, end the reverent seeker id spiritual guidance, lie 
who would fully understand it must be ail three. 

4, From ah this it is evident that much of what is said in the Bible, 
and that by far the mwl important part, cannot be tested by archeo¬ 
logical evidence. That God i* One, that he is Maker of heaven and 
earth, that man is made in hi* image, that Christ is the Incarnate Word 
of God, that by following him man finds eternal life, that the way tn 
abundant life is the way of self-dedication and love—such leaching* are 
entirely outside the sphere in which archeology or any science am have 
anything to day. Any attempt to demonstrate the truth of the Bible as 
revelation by an appeal to archeology necessarily proceed* on the fal« 
assumption that truth of one kind and tmlh nf another kind must go 
together. In other words, it ii taken (or grantee] that if the historical 
record is accurate, the spiritual teaching ato « reliable. In that ease, 






* 


Wit AT MEAJf TIILSE imim? 


(tl *-51 


if any ^(emenl in the Diblr ^ould pft>ve false, the Bible could no 
longer lie M the Word of God. Mnhy ilefcndm of tbe Scrrp- 

tuies Actually take Lilts pwitnn. NtiUirr archeology Bar any other 
branch of science, they insist, hits ever disproved or can ever disprove 
the truth of anything in Ihe Sntplu^s. But surely our filth in the 
Bible as our -tundurd of faith and prsi’tict must rest un a deeper and 
more secure foundation than tbt, Religious truth in one things histori¬ 
cal fact in another. Neither nrctnAjirily prevappotts Of accompanies the 
other, 

5. There is an cither weakness in the illeuipt to prove the truth nf 
Ihe Bible by archeology The auction Hut archeology confirms what 
the Bible says implies that what the Bible says is rightly understood. 
Thh is Often, however, a matter of i elI erprelation, Onc'i vie* of Ihe 
Bible M a whole del ermines la a large extol onr K s understanding of 
what the Bible say*. Regarding ihe book of Jt>nah, for example, one 
may say that jl j j not true to history, because—quite apart from the 
fish, who has had more than his share of attention—whil is said regard- 
jog Hie oily of Nineveh <fwi not Correspond to wh*| L«. known from 
Assyrian rect.rnK Such a statement, whether true or not, assumes that 
the hook of Jonah was in I en ded to give n historical account of aetuaf 
0 tenia in the ancient city of Nineveh. In that case, ib&c?tirades of nar¬ 
rative or descript tun would emmilute a serious fault- For one who 
hellrv r*, however, iha t the writ er had no sOrh in t rulion, but was deliber¬ 
ately composing ft satire in the form of hitioMoU fiction, holding up 10 
ridicule the narrow-mindedness and reOpmu rxclusivedeu of hu c nit- 
temporaries, debate about the eomspnoticuea of details in Ihe story to 
historical fact is simply irrelevant, It would be as reasonable and profit¬ 
able to discuss at length the historicity of Ihe characters and evffili in 
the parable of the Good Samaritan. Before asking whether a slattmml 
b literally true to fart, we should a*k whether It wis ever intended lo 
be so. If not, to debate the matter at the expense of the Spiritual mean¬ 
ing which ihe writer wished lo convey is merely Up obscure the Bible’s 
real truth and value. 

Naturally archeological confirmation uf what appears in the Bible 
will always be welcomed- Wh*l has been -■-= id here on eIih subject 11 
not intended as a way of breaking unpleasant news gently, is though 
no areheotoifkal ctirrobofatinn of the biblical narratives could be 
expected- On the contrary, while the importance of this nutter has 
been much exaggerated, and other contribution* of archeology to the 


Hi **> 




5 


study of ih* Bible have hm correspondingly negleeted, We shad *» 
l b*t it many point* what is told by the biblical writer* has been 
s&gnatly confimid by archeological discoveries. 

fl. While accuracy cn the details of nirrttiw U not essential Id U>e 
jcK^iom vflhir of the BibE? (if Eli claim lc> bp the word of Cod. it don 
aol follow that history and ITVfUtkpD art wholly unrelated, At four 
points the truth of the Babies rejigfrnu leaching depends on thr truth 
nf it* vie* of history. Thr &t±l tit theae i* the basic phlknophy of tils- 
tory which animate* pit the prophetic acid historic*! baqbi of the Old 
Tgjf Ei fnrriil The Ifrbrew historian- reviewed the pant of their os lion 
in order to ifcow that national filory ami prosperity depended upon 
fidelity to the nation's God. Here UMolvgy mterpttts hwiory, and the 
quwtUifi of the truth of the BihJ* includes the queftba whether the 
interpretation is a true onr, The accuracy of the bistory and the truth 

the interpretation must not be Cohfu**d. The Conviction that Cod 
punishes and reward!* nation* h m>t subject to hiitOTJCa! demonstration 
or refutation. Hdw far any particutar national disaster was actually 
the result of relipou* or moral -rand it inn* is another qttntkm, hut it is 
not one that can be scttted by archeological evidence. 

7, A recond point at which history and theory cone together ii the 
use of prophecy in thr Bible to attest a religious reveUliun Here again 
bisloty may be appealed to for support of refutation. Devout writers 
of the post, and present, irt fact, hmvr nut failed in point out what *etm 
to them to be marvelous Fulfilment* of Scripture in their own day*. 
Deeper study of the prophetic boots,, however, shows tlisl they are not 
M tnua concerned with f □retelling events m detail as with warning* 
of the «nu«|UUK« of lin and promise* of the rewards of righltuUilteis. 
stated in general or even symbolic term* History therefore can speak 
only in a general way of the fulfilment of a prophecy„ and here again 
archeology cannot help us- 

0. Somewhat similar is the cue of the use of miracles a* " sign* *f 
spiritual truth. If the historicity of the toiracnlous eWUl »« 5 *ded in 
the Bible can be established. this will afford a confirmation of the Scrip¬ 
ture* much more important than mere corroboration of ordinary his- 
Tori cal details in the narrative*. The matter ii complicated, however, 
by the fact that HOI only the occurrence of particular rate but also 
their explanation is involved, Many historians, for example, admit that 
the Israelite* may have crossed the Red Sra Oil dry land, and that J«us 
may have healed the rick, while at tbe rattle lime they insist that every- 



fl W|l AT MJEA3C ftms aTOSEH? >i 11 S I I j 

thiu)t which happecifd h -■tL’JT’cjjJ i h It* of a purely naturalistic ejqpLsnatiun. 
Once more wc canard expect here any help from archeology. 

0 r Incomparably the wiofi important paint at which theology and 
history converge with mpret to the truth of the Bible U the existence 
of Jcsu* u a historical duractw. If Jesus never lived fjtuqjt in the 
faith of the church, the whole New Testament h the deposit of a gigantic 
deluded. To be sure, the truth of the Christian conception of God and 
the validity of the Christian (deal of life would not be affected. But 
the example of Jesus and the demnmlration of divine love in hii life 
unit death, which have given Christianity its distinctive character and 
it* practical dynamic, won Ed be lost, litre mo.it certainly historical evi¬ 
dence tui* a vital bearing on lb* truth of the Bible. Whether arvbeohigy 
can. provide such evidence must therefore be considered in a later 
chapter (§ IBS). 

IQ. The conclusions to which the foregoing discussion has led ua 
may mm to have greatly reduced the help to be expected ffafli Vtht* 
dingy. Deeper consideration, however, will show that this IS by BO 
means the case. The importance uf finding archtdoglcal rcntirmation 
for thr narrative portions «J the Bible is greatly dimimihed, but that 
ii all gnin. There is clearly no necessity for that feeling of urgeary 
which leads to ha*ty jmf ill founded appJital iwm oJ HtchodogirAl 
evident ? to the defence of the £cri|iliiim 

Wliat we really need, a/ier ah, if not to defend the Bible but to 
undmlafld it. It is here that Archeology make* St* greatest coutrihir 
ii&n. Much of the Bible, of conr*?. require* no pepla nation. It it So 
human and to universal that it speak* directly and plainly to men of 
all Ages and races, fortunately for the church and the ^urid< the «fl- 
trai idea* of the Bible are sufficiently clear to be apprehended by the 
tfio^t untutored reader, and In be translated by him into terms of his 
own life And thought. At the Aitme time lhere hu been n great deal of 
misunderstanding, Thr variety of doctrines and the multitude of ttCU 
withjq the church afford sufficient, evidence of the diffindtics that have 
been encountered in interpreting the Bible. As soon AS We get iwiy 
fmiu general truths and came dawn to particulars, we strike problems 
whoFe solution require* special knowledge. Every available help to the 
better understanding of the Scriptures should be welr&fne. 

1L The kind of help which the student of I he Bible CMS expect from 
archeology depends. w* kitt seen, on the biijc purpObr- uf the Bible 
and the nature of its con tents. It depend* also on the purpose, methods, 


(i "J 


umiMivcnos 


1 


ami iisa t'.Tin is of iTvhnl^i^l rcicnwh Archeology bn* now Collie a 
science, not ?ft the restricted sense *bi*h tmhrtiM iWily the phy*k*i 
fljail biological sdeEim. but in the win 1 that it is 4 form «f research 
devoted to the discovery of truth in ft clearly defined field, dealing with 
a define type of material. and rigidly systematic and critical m its 
methods. 

Whit, th-rFh. h archnjlugy? The word meant. literally* talking about 
,rid thing:!.. Of about antiquity. Aj the name of a wimtific dbciptim 
I hii implif* a syiltnutfc study of ancient objects and ftBfieat bfe. 
Thus broadly defined. homvtt* iichwlogy would he ihr *am* as hifr- 
torj . TrdinifiUy archeology in a brnm'h of history; it » one d the 
historical science* What distinguish** archeology from the other hw- 
toriral fences is the kind »f material with whkh it i* concerned. 
Hbilopr> the study of man's past, depends Upon various MZttS of 
knowledge. th> the wMe I hey fail into two great divisions, archeological 


olid literary sources. 

The hislorian mike* much use cl written documents* iMndlflg both 
records and nUo eipm»»™ of thfjpght and filing m the various forms 
of literature, Now historical documents from ancient limb liavc rarely 
Stem preserved in their original forms; they have Usually been coined 
uuiny UitieK so that the earliest eatant manuscript* come from a time 
cOft*JdertWy later than the date when their contents were first written. 
Mta^rn scholars who make use of such tlfpcumriit* for historical pur- 
Lises must therefor* investigate carefully I he history through which 
I he sources thcnticlve* have gone dime they Left the hands of their 
authors A» over against such literary sources, the materials of arche- 
U W eomtsl of things which have survived from the very lime* which 
** wish to study. The Age of Pericles may be studied not only in the 
writings of the Greek historians, poela, “™ 3 philosophers. but ll*» in the 
Parthenon and ether rc mains of ancient building at Athens, m the 
pictures painted op Greek vase* of the peri<*I, in statnel and coins and 
inscriptions. 

Obviously both kinds ft! material are nece^Ty for a full and accurate 
picture of ancient life. One may read Plutarch's account of die ostra 
ciim of ThemistoeJes, One may also see and handle in Athens today 
wme of the actual potsherds {oitfuw) Used to ostraciw Themistodta. 
*iLh his name scratched oft them. Without the historian's narrative, 
ip this instance, the archeological object would mean htlle or nothing, 
hut giveti the rcnrord. the object at Irtusl adds vrndmas and itftbly to 
it. Often archeological evidence doe* much more than that. It fills up 


B 


WHAT MEASf THESE STOK 1» f 


{it n-m 


inilwrt-a n ( k*]?£ m the literary evidence And explains things m the 
document* thcnudvn which would [itlirru isr be obscure. 

The dUlmrtion bet * t en Archeology and I hr study of history from 
menus? hutch hn hot ilnp been, ohserved. K^wiAEly in books 
written before modern F-cientific archeology ws* developed, the term 
jiK’bMflojjy ls often to denote i systematic description of ancient 

customs, aoeinl institution i, And She like, as dbtiuguhhtd from history 
in the ^nse of a narrative of evenli and movement*. I is this score the 
word ii tiled, for rumple, m such works as those of Nowack and 
Benringer oh Biblical Ar£hM%V, The materials are dmwii ff^m 
litemry records primarily, but the interest is descriptive rather than 
creative. Thi* use of the word it now almost obsolete, and the techni¬ 
cal meaning indicated above is commonly intended, and understood; 
hut the t»et that the terns appears m the older sense in boots which 
are still useful and important should be clearly realised. For (ht purpoe 
in hand archeology means the scientific study or material remains from 
ancient life. 

1* Ancirrit object's may be valued for other than scientific reason* ■ 
If they are beautiful, they may he prized as works pf art. regardless of 
their age. They W*y be esteemed, by a sort of sentimental antiquarian- 
ism, as ' antiques, K merely because they are old. Somewhat closer tp a 
genuine archeological Altitude b the common interest in old things 
IWMrt of assoetalkuw with famous person* or events. The flag carried 
in I battle, the hat worn by A great statesman, or the house in which 
George Washington spent a night may help m to r«*ll the past more 
clearly and often to understand it belter. A Gothic cathedral is nut 
rmly a triumph of architectural genius; it also express the ideas and 
aspirations of it% builders and of the age in which they lt% r ed. 

Appreciation of die material remains of the past is itself very undent. 
The Hebrew historian, telliiLg of the death and burial of Rachel Adds, 
11 And Jacob set up a pillar un her grave- it is the Pillar of RidlcTa 
Gmve to this day N (Gen. SO), [n many Other passages the phrase 
H ‘ to this day " is employed in like fashion, showing plainly that the 
children of lifurl cherished objects which preserved the memory of the 
past. In fact, itoftes are said to have been set up deliberately M for a 
memorial "on sucli great occasions as the establishment of Ihe Covenant 
and the crossing of the Jordan {Ex. *4: 4; Josh. 4; 4-D). 

Religion has long been aware of the educative value of malcriaJ 
reminders of the past. The pmclitt of making pilgrimages and the cult 


:!l 11-13) 


l^TIlDULCTlOy 


0 

ol relic* iiiujtrate the uj* uf ucretf places and ohj«ts la cultivate pious 
remembrance ud devotional »rdoft, In such veneration of pbrw and 
object* lbere may be rent spiritual value, if only it nn be purged of 
superstition and baud. As commonly practiced ft ii fir removed from 
KicnliflE archeology. A guide in Eg> ft remarked frankly to a friend 
uf the writer. "The pi see where Mn» was found an the bulrushes used 
to be further up the rim, but we moved St down here to make it e&n- 
vrns^nt for the UmriiU/' There is reason to suspect that the redes fans- 
cal CUftodiifta of sacred plate? in raleilEne have sometimes taken 
simitar liberties for the convenience of pilgrims. While it is often painful 
to a devuut soul to be disillusioned, Ehr avinatiuil student of the 
Bibfc will be grateful to the arehee%i*L fbr getting rid of superstition 
Otsd clearing the ground for honest and Intelligent investigation, Areh*’ 
\>hp‘ 11 flol concerned with the convenience of tourists and pilgrims, 
H IS not interested iu producing thrills. Nor h it primarily dtvuled, as 
manv suppose, to the acquisition of beautiful object h for museumii The 
purpose of archeology, to come back to the point from which we started, 
is to gain an understanding of man'* Jib hg bygone ages. Archeology 
b that branch of historical science which seeks to promote the under- 
*1 landing of human life by the systematic aludy uf material remains 
from the twist, 

iJt. In its beginnings, scientific nrchenlofEy did not need Eu reek new 
material, Remains of ancient temples, theatres, and forum a were 
plentiful above ground, requiring only to be measured, drawn to scale, 
described, compared, and clawed. Statues, reliefs, and vuct were 
preserved in considerable number* m museums and private collections. 
Quantities of edits were in the possession of antiquarians, providing 
both graphic represent ations of perKU* buildings, ships, and other 
things and also the names of riders and their dates. Many inscriptions 
in stone were available also for study. 

Gradually, however, the iCope of investigation was entailed to include 
I lie quest of additional material That many remains of the pa&l lay 
buried in the earth was common knowledge. Among the parables of 
Ie$u* there is one which tells of finding treasure hidden in a field. Even 
now iueh finds are riot unco in mem Every once in a whi le in the East 
an old lotnb comes to light, cufltammg objects of more or leta value 
deposited with the bodies of the dead. The sale of such objects p«i- 
vidfi * welcome supplement to a peasant's meager income. Naturally 
men have not rested content with accidental and sporadic discoveries. 


id 


WHAT MEAN' THEBE STONES f 


fli IS ll’i 


Cupidity preceded scientific cttriwftj aj Iht moliw for exeat* tkffl, Jt, 
Kg>pt tonib-mhbift|j was a rtetigftijfd pncticv m very early times: 
indeed I he modi'nil traveler who finds n tomb lUlMdlnet count* 
himself singularly furtutiate, 

A V**y different motive for excavation was provided (onp ego by I hr 
religious btmt m plates and objects with sacred tttoriations.' 

Imps the first excavation itt Palestine made with this interest waa the 
uncovering of the Holy S^mlchre m I be fourth century, under Con- 
itiOtiflt. At prstfll. though perhaps not entirety even yet. the tcligious 
active is combined with the scientific desire for accurate knowl¬ 
edge b the past, unfortunately, the search fop rdici, Me the idcMificn- 
tlofl) of sacred sites, was al best Uncritical and at worst unscrupulous 
Fiona credulity and wishful thinking felt no need for patient and critical 
investigattoJi, 

The long stoly of the emergence and development of a more peientiffc 
attitude ami more aid me think of excavation cannot be told here, 1 
Tq be at ill adequate, it would have to Include fiot only the excavations 
io Palestine and Mesopotamia but aiso the parallel grow I h in Graeco- 
Roman and Egyptian archeology, In general St may lw said that the 
devebpmcnl of refined ami accurate methods came Later than die ideal 
of a dtsinLereal.nl and opt n-ns ind™J pursuit of knowledge. As a matter 
of fact, a procedure which can truly be called scientific has but recently 
emerged. Without attempting to trace the steps in its development we 
nifly be content to sketch its main dement* as now recognized by 
competent excavators, 

14. Let m assume that the first essential step, securing ibe funds for 
the enterprise, haj lirrli taken. Another important preliminary step is 
the selection of the site to be excavated, Con mi Jenstioqs of available 
labor, general accessibility, distance from uurtri or supplies and from 
water, and the like enter into the situation, though many excavations 
ate carried out under great difficulties in these tetpecls. The site musL 
ot course be one which gives some promise of yielding rewards com- 
mensurale with the effort and expense of excavation, The site of the 
mound indicates something of the importance of the place in ■nuricnl 
To these considerailon# may be added the extra incentive of 
having reason to identify the Site with a place shown by literary sources 
to have been important in history. 

Various means are available for identifying such sites. Sometimes, of 

1 fa u mlmling poirtkr *cr*mnt er h* KBA. 


t M 14-11} 


i>TBODCCTiaN 


u 


coursfi, n in the case of Jerusalem or Bethlehem, the identity of the 
place ha* never been kit. Tradition, bovreTfr, is next a *4 ft guide on 
thus point. In many ce.se* the ancient nsene luu persisted with more or 
less change. Here again caution is necessary. The fact Uut a name 
sounds like one which occur* in the Bible b no proof of identity. Even 
where a name is clearly Identical with one prCKmd in literar/sources, 
tlie location of the town has sometimes shifted ^icral miles. At Jeri¬ 
cho, for example, there are three distinct places womt distance apwrt- 
Ihe present village, Ihc wte of the town which borr the Mine in New 
Testament Mines, and the mnutid ronlamtug the remains of the Cttnaan- 
itc city. If the name gives no clue, the general locality in which a his¬ 
tone site it to be looked for and its geographical relation to other jjtcs 
can be ascertained to some extent from the literary sources. When 
these various consideration a agree in pointing to a mound as the site 
I.*r a particular City, the case is fairly complete. Conclusive proof may 
have to await the results of excavation, and even theft it may not be 
forthcoming. Sometime* a proposed identification k shown by excava¬ 
tion to be im possible. Hardy. if ever, has cxcavatkn given the first 
due to a previously ynsuspected Identification. Thia ii quite natural 
since all possible identifications in the region of the tell are usually 
cutLi-i dered before excavation is undertaken. 

15, When the lilt to be excavated has been selected, the use or the 
bod must be «eyred by purchase or rental, usually the tatter. Days 
ntid week* of negotiation may be required for this, especially when the 
properly of many owners is concerned. Cupidity and obstinacy may 
lead to insistence on quite unreasonatile rharges. In many localities, 
however, the people have found that it if to their interest to have their 
land excavated- Remunerative employment for many of the people ii 
provided while the work proceeds, and some of them are able to sell 
vegetables and Other supplies to the excavator*. Furthermore, the con- 
irart with the owner* often Includes a clause requiring that the Land be 
left in suitable condition for farming, and it has been found that the 
process of digging up and turning over the soil increase* it* produt¬ 
ility- Fermiiston to excavate must be secured also from the govern- 
mint's Department of Antiquities, Realizing; how much important 
archeological evidence has been destroyed m the past hy careless and 
incompetent excavation, the government! of Palestine and the neigh¬ 
boring countries are now very strict in requiring that (hr work be done 
under proper supervision. Meanwhile the staff of the expedition must 


If 


fl'lAT ilLVS 1 TIIEHC STONEfi? 


ill 1*1*1 


be iMemby. ]f fundi are plentiful there may be seven] salaried fork" 
ttm if pot, the difertor md most cf hi» A»v9lihti nmy work without 
uttary. Surveyors* drflfhnifn, and Other skilled worker* PLut usua% 
be hired, since volunteer workers rarely have the requisite skill The 
ictunl di|cfirih r h done by the men, women, and children cl the hetreit 
vilbge- Ordinarily the men dig I he carlb with their pointed hoes and 
put it into baskets* which arr carried pw*y by the women and children 
on their hcid.i and dumped at place* carefully selected for the purpose. 

10. The [inH-i-ilurr followed in modem scientific excavation ki po v- 
rmrd by |Sit fundamental M-iasiijeratkiP that in object and its Gignifi- 
eanec lor history ran be Fully understood only whm it is studied in its 
archeological context, i. e. in connection with She spot where it Wum 
discovered and the other things Found with it. from Una follow what 
jitny be eallnl the three cardinal principle* of modern archeological 
method slratiprEkjphic excavation, exact and midicuious recording, and 
umpintm interpretation- 

Stratigraphic digging means digging in such a Way ms to keep distinct 
the superimposed strata or ItveM of occupation- When a die has been 
inhabited for many centuries. the remains from the successive periods 
of its occupation lie one above another in such a way as to suggest 
inevitably a gifn&tk layer cake. The building up of th*« layers of 
ikbrii was not limply a matter of gradual aecumulatLon. Throughout 
each period, in fact, while of course there was some new building and 
some sccumLilakion of rubbish, on the whole the same buddings stood 
with Little change^ and the level of the ground and ilrecti remained 
approximately the same- But then came the end of the period through 
some dUaJle^ by war or by fire or both, or perhaps by earthquake. 
Roof* fell m, villi were broken down, and everything Combustible 
burned, forming a layer of aahei over the ruins- After a greater or Ins 
interval, the inhabitants came back, or the conquerors rebuilt the city, 
ur perhap* a new people coming into the land cbose the deserted dte 
for a new habitation. Little or no attempt wan made to deal away 
the rubbish of thr former dtyt Jl dm ply Icvdrd off roughly, and 
Pew building! were erected, partly on the old foundations, largely with¬ 
out regard to them. Thus the ground-level of the new city was several 
feet higher than the old ode, and everything in the ruins which had 
been covered over Hi limply left where it Lay* below the floors and 
streets of the new dly. In lime this Httlement too came lo an end 4 
and the ptorai was repeated. This wrnt on at some places until the 
summit of the riling mound became loo small to accommodate a town. 


(I 1*3 


TKTflHxarn-iosr 


13 

[hr final abandonment inf Ihc site, if it ever wix finally aAmti- 
dpwd, the winds IikJ rains of many yet ti [tided off the lop of the 
mound and ended if* wta* tmt when ihe hill was Warned by a city 
wall, the erasian ¥ju limiletl *o l but the shape of t ilctp^d (vne 
with its lop cul off was preserved and accentuated. Aimoil all the 
Important anrieid sites ii, Bible EutoJs have this ch a smet eristic form, 
eonnwatly ilcAiHrualrd by Ihe Atlbk w^rrl tftt. m rufi in e 1 inmiml 1 
Many of iheiii are nou knmvn by the Arabs as J " Mound TEus " ot 
“ Mound Thai. ' e-g. Tell rl-MutePcKlim (ancient Mlpddo), Tell 
ed-Duweir [ancient Lftchiah)« ur Tell Beit Minim {ahrienl Kiriath- 
Scpher) 

The ideal method of esrcnvalinnr of course, would be to remove each 
layer entirely over the whole J-Utfaer uf the mound. Smc<s the time and 
funds available far cxravalian orr iiniilhj, this is hardly ever prnc-I-ea■ 
hie. The nejtt best procedure. »rhich has also »mp positive advan- 
lagea., is to mark off a deli Rile area or section of Ihc mou nd and excavate 
it dawn la bed rock or virgin sail Carefully following the lira I [graphic 
method within this area. A variation uf this method is to Exravate 
mrceuive * trips of uliifonn breadth across the surface of the mound. 
One practical ail vantage of digging by it rips or areas is that when one 
portion of the mound has been fully cmvated, it can be used for 
dumping the dirt from the next strip or area. Finding * place to deposit 
Lhe dirt is our of Ihc problems which have la be carefully thought oul 
before actual excavation begins. 

The Utmost rare b hreeinjty in uncovering each stratum and the 
objects it contain*. In order not IP m m imall thing* like Corns and 
jewelry, every basketful of earth must be sifted. Muit euivilon give 
a .small bonus to the workers for objects they find, though same fed 
that this temptt them too ittHtrh to “plantobject* secured elsewhere 
The eryts {foreman) w&lche* the workers rkthejy. and whenever his 
skilled eye catches something which might be destroyed, he require* 
jartkylsr nrc, When bones, glassware, or other fragile objects appear, 
he stops the workmen and with knife and camel's, halt brush patiently 
removes the dirt oO thaE the object may be photographed and liken up 
without bring broken, if passible. Tracing walls and uncovering them 
without destroying them v- often i delicate tank, especially when they 
nre built of mud brick, layers of ashrv ofteo lignificant as dividing 
one stratum froin ■n.ulher, must frf uncovemf and nTorded with 
pain slaking accuracy, 

Stratigraphic digging is not » rimplr at (hr analogy of a layer cake 


H 


WHAT MIA $ TJ1E5K STOWES? 


(!114-ii) 


nsajr suggest- No octuptliorui level ever flit ud perfectly bon- 
100 la], like the lop of 1 tibk Street*, such 11 they were, mn up md 
Jope, and i 6 flie buildin|i Uoaf «n higher ground tkn pthe», Those 
ii-rar the nnUrof the mound wert often con sklerably higher than those 
□«r the of I he dty; more rsttlv the opposite condition might 

obtain, u it Bybb. Important public buddings were often on aft 
«rropaIi* ml one end the city. To follow these upi and downs and 
keep together whal belongs toother it in pMclire 1 difficult. task, 
requiring experience ind constant vigilance. All the more important is 
It tfl*t the work he carefully done ind thoroughly supervised . 

IT. The second cardinal principle of modem irehrologiraj method 
W iCciirmte and fompktc recording. This involves detailed mips of 
every level, photography and accurate plans, ind dnwinp of the exci- 
VAliPU in cvnj- part ind At every stage of its progress, including build- 
ingf. walls* pavements, iml smaller objects. and tko exact ^istrttlud 
of object* with complete nolition of the levels ind locations where they 
were found. The guiding principle here is tint nothing cut be regarded 
is unimportant. Whit appears insipifkibt At Ihc moment, and may in 
itself have np valor or importance, will Twmetiracs prove Afterwards an 
indispensable clue to the mterprelitbn of mm* thing dse. 

An outstanding example of the importance of the Apparently ItLnig- 
ii the once dcvpiird potiherd. Ip every ancient tell the ground 
U full of broken pottery". Even m the surface it lira strewn over the 
ground in large quantities. Earlier excavators gathered these sherds 
Into pile* and asked in perplexity. 'What can w* do with them? n 
Now, thanks lo uhiiiiilke studies At many riles, these bits of broken 
and discarded vt^ls have become very important evidence. Tor Jong 
periods of ancient history they are the archeologist's chief Etiema of 
dating the occupation of each kve| of Jit* mound. The eompeto&t exca¬ 
vator a careful, then-fore, to see that the potsherds from each room 
and levd are kept by themselves and entered in the record. The natives 
who do the actual digging ire aadly perplexed by ihia care for old 
broken vesscla. Sometimes they captain it by supposing that the 
excavator ha* a magic power In turn potsherds into gold. 

18. Util bring! us to OUr third cardinal principle, comparative study 
and mterpretA tkm, for the use of the ,J ceramic index ” for chronology 
Jua been mule possible by exhauitivc comparison* of the pgllcry found 
Ui many excavation. Such comparison, m turn, is made possible only 
by thorough recording and adequate publication, since tvu individual 


ii m 


TSmCIDrrTtU.V 


1 $ 

timk? a first-hand itudy of lhe pottery from every site. At one rite 
Afltr another it has been found that in form, ware. arid decoration of 
patlery eharjjirig " fashions H bite thwe in clothing and furni¬ 

ture today. Just as an t-iperirticed collector an recognk* Colonial 
china of Vic Ionian brie-a-hrer at a gtancc. so the trained archeologist 
hecomto acquainted with the types of pottery r hairnet eriatic of the 
successive periods nf iDcicjat history . 

Fur Ihii purpose hr observe* and describes his pottery with regard 
to form, ware, and decoration. The first is perhaps the moil useful 
enteric*. In each period there in Certain for™ which arc qq|te dll' 
tinctive. Nut only the general contours of tbe vewels 1 but also such 
features a# handles, rims, and base?, afford mean* of identification. 
Ware al«—including the fineness or CO* ran ess of the cky, Ihr number 
and sire of the time-grits naked with it, its color, and the manner and 
degree of it* baking—affords an important criterion, though by itself 
lesj decisive than form, since there are always different grades of pot¬ 
tery in any period. I Juration includes burnishing (with pebbies. shrlla. 
or pots herd sjj „ covering with a wash or slip, painting with Conventional 
riosigns or pictures, incising patterns in the clay in Lilies or in rows of 
*m»J] holes {sometimes inlaid with a different material, e- g. white on a 
black veaxl), and sometimes the addition, of ptaatie ornament* such 
as winding serpents, moulded in day and affixed to the vend before 
firing, Occasionally it may he Slid that form and decoration art Com¬ 
bined, the vessel itself being inookled tn the shape of a bird or animal 
or a human bead. 

Since the development and eofflhinaliotis of these varied features fol¬ 
low regular fashions in successive centuries, they give the archeologist 
abundant mans for distinguishing the pottery of each period. Of course 
the typej do not alt simultanetjuisly change at a given date. Some per¬ 
ils* « hag aa to be of little use for dating; only relatively few are so 
distinctive that their presence aidne is. sufficient to date a building or 
stratum- Ordinarily it ii the occurrence of a group of characteristic 
typos together, With the absence of other typos, that determine* the 
date. Fortunately the quantity of pottery at each level ii in Trtfrtt care* 
amply sufficient for this purpose. For every bronae or iron implement 
there will bo buhctfull of potsherds 

Stratigraphic digging ltd thorough recording make it possible to 
arrange the pottery type* in chronological order. When the same type 
or group of type* U found at Kveral different rile*, it is evident that the 
Levels at which it II fouod ware occupied at about the same rime. Since 





10 


WUT UUt fHERF. STOSTE5? 


a m 


the deirelnpment from due poup of types Id another follows the same 
erdtr in different places, the occupational history of the various diet 
tun be correlated. There are many com plication*, of course, Sfifne 
forms are merely local and appear only at one site or within a small 
legion. Others are brought hy commerce or immigration from other 
land* and appear at one place before they btCufllc known it another. 
Some continue in use a wh ile longer al one place than at another. Since 
there were gaps in the oCCujsaliwm of mort rites,. a complete scries of 
[urms cannot be exptcUd at any <me place. It is only by the exhaustive 
comparison uf d? the fortn* found at each level in every excavation 
that reliable foadlisWlPi can be achieved. 

The fa^hiotLn in pottciy, moreover must be compared with the devel¬ 
opment sn Other matter*. Architectural forms and decoration evolve 
similarly, as do also the forms and material* of weapons and implement* 
of all kind*. Occasionally scab or inscription *■, which can be connected 
with particular rulers and thus assigned to definite date*, apfrCAt in the 
escalations, The pottery found in the same level cap then be dated 
Accordingly„ so that the relative chronology afforded by the jiuecetalvc 
pottery type* becomes, at certain points, an absolute chronology. Every 
new excavation helps tn fill in the details. Thus, by means of compara¬ 
tive it oily, the dating of objects and of the levels in which they are 
found bectira** more and mote sure and exact. 

Nor ia this the whole story- A* the finds from Various riles. not only 
in one country hut in r«iou* lands, are compared in detail, it become* 
possible to trace cultural movement* ami relationship*. Commercial 
connections and to some extent migrations of peep lei may be inferred 
from such evidence. Here comparative interpretation, based on slnti- 
graphic digging and complete recording, makes its principal contribu¬ 
tion. Bit by bit the cultural history of whole people* emerge*, first m 
onUiQe and then m greeter detail. Thu* a wide acquaintance whh the 
archeology of many countries u imperative if one would attempt t* 
interpret the finds from any rile. 

Recording and comparative study may be applied not only to the 
remits of excavation hut also to bmLditags and objects which have 
remained above ground or are discovered accidentally. They were 
actually applied in the study of the history uf architecture long before 
present method* of excavation had been developed. Stratigraphic dig¬ 
ging, however, ha* both increased the amount of material and provided 
new means for dating and interpreting it. With the new understanding 
thus gained it is possible to examine again the remain* of buildings 


HI la-fti) 


iKTaOMfCtTQST 


IT 


known previously and objrtla to Ihr miiKumv The whole picture k 
thin e k rifled and unified, 

IP. The strict methods Wo have betti Considering cit-n-Mrih the right 
■of archeology to be t*lM m 'dentr- In p *rtiw B to he *nre, it It rml 

much a acience h\ a caller t tan cif science*. The i-rfui-t to 

reach ft complete muff rstundjiig of his materials. in vohfcf to an astonish¬ 
ing degree the uu uT many bcibueta, Bit a of charcoal are nknncopKiDy 
analyzed to determine n'kl kind of Wood or fabric WM Med. rbrhLkiil 
reagents are used tn bring out faded writing. Inf ni-red photography 
makes d«r whit tie eye cannot delect, Zoologists ate called Upon to 
name the animals whose bones are found; physical lEHhuftpolagtils 
determine the age mud «S nF human remains. Osdi^i 1 and 

mineralogy play their pari uta. Thu* every relevant science is kid 
under tribute to make I he evidence tell its story Iruly and fully, 

In spite of its itgoruui method and its sdcnttfic attitude and purpose, 
ftft-beology it not one of the eaaet sciences. The real significance of ill 
findtevga cannot be gauged by objective tne*H 3 trtnrfll and demonslrm- 
tkm. To be sure, since it operates frith concrete (lit*, the material 
remains of the past* it can be strictly objective m the assembling and 
recording of its evidence, Its finding* can be 10 presented that the his¬ 
torian is able to draw his awn omclmuons from them, Tn that sense 
and to that titent archeology can be h and is at its bri-l, an dead science. 
The development of architecture or pottery. far ranrnplc. can be dettf- 
mined with examine** and certainty. When it cumrs to interpretation, 
however, i subjective element inevitably creeps in, In attempting to 
determine the bearing of archeological di*C(H p erwi on larger historical 
problem-', it t$ impossible to avoid satrle degree of personal judgment. 
We tufty wive the scientific good name of archeoiugy by limiting it to 
the fttCft wilhin which objectivity U attainable. We may thm say that 
the subjective element crimes in when we poos from archeology lo his¬ 
tory. But since it is only by talcing that step that ftttfaeokLgy achieves 
a nv real significance. vt shall do better to avoid Rich a narfufr defini- 
lion, and la include ItMiorksI interpretation within the scope of arch*- 
oJojp? F even at Ihr toil of sacrifiL'ing the flftim to complete euctneM 
and objectivity. Archeology is then a science in the sense in which we 
speak of the social sciences, ftftd it is to be classified as one of these. 

^0. Pr-f.^p-r attempting to define the possibilities and limiLalions of 
Archeology It will be well to examine more closely the nature of I he 
material* frith which it operates, Th* diithsetien between archeology 




WHAT S 1 KAH THEafc 9 TO.NE&? 


(I Wi 


ia 

nl and literary evidence bi already twfl Itoted (4H], Amflog the 
material* thl areheotogy, however. there is an mtenn«]iAt.c group. cuh< 
satio| of cunlcinpu rary ivritltn rwonls, such ai in script inns carved ip 
stone, clay tablet *, papyri, ami inscribed scab and coins. We may call 
these irchbiluginl-Llterir\ r documents. In the nature of their contents 
they dn nut differ esseiiiialEy from non-irrheoicigol literary KHJtCfl, 
One nnd the same literary composition! fur that matter, may be Iranv 
milted In posterity by the process of copying, editing, lOnvUtmg. i|n«!* 
mg and the like, and also preserved, wholly or partially, in an inocfi! 
copy, recovered by excavation. 

An excellent example of this ia the Dto Jimm ron of Tadan. This 
earliest known ' harmony" of the four gospels *as CORipO&cd ill the 
Lntter half uf the second century. Efn auIher, n Syri*n, had been eon• 
verted at Rome by Justin Martyr, ft ia cfctafit ia Arable and Ului 
trenail but hintorians have been uncertain whether (t was- origi¬ 

nally composed in Greek or in Syrian In l^t the expedition of Yale 
University and the Frenth A emit my id InsvfijiUons and Letters- dis¬ 
cover d at DurarUlifOpOi OR the Euphrates a fragment of papyrus eon- 
raining a brbf portion uf the Greek lest of Tatian. written Lass than 
a century after the comporithm nf the Abn tr jju tun. What was hitherto 
known only as a literary document* in late copiea and in translation, 
has thus become known, though only In small part, in an a rah to Logical- 
titcrary form also , 1 

If the identical composition i* Fkot thus double preserved, some id 
the contents of a document of the une kind may be known also in a 
different form from a document nf the Other kind* For example. Greek 
writers quote fragments df a htilory uf Babylonia by a Babylonian 
priest named a contemporary id Alexander the Great. Thus 

in acquaintance with the Babylonian myth of Creation has been handed 
devil In modem limes by literary transmission. About the middle of 
I he last century there wrre discovered in the remains of Ashurbanipal's 
library at Nineveh a scries of tablets containing a part of the Creation 
inylh. The late literary documents were thus supplemented by a much 
earlier form of the Mime material m an arehcoiOglcaMiterary source- A 
recent discovery *how» that the literary treu-imission was surprisingly 
accurate. Names of king* who reigned before the Hood are pm in 
quotation* from Bemsot. but dure they suffer considerably from I he 

1 ri Siirm<itW Sh«» piflfcJtakfO whul V l» be ■iiHrthrr Ermjntiii uf 1 |i# Gnrk 

thmurfi iht l/it fcrfujJtjr tfidudM k tnlirly f«ru m M-aMJwtt fECTT SliiH 

pp *tV&> 


cl m 


r^TIKVOOCTlOft 


ID 

mm** of the antediluvian patriarch) in Ibc Bible they w*r* fonntrly 
thought Id \mvt been inaccurately tram milted. Now, howmr, they 
nre slrikingly corroborated by emuriform originals from the end of |be 
thirtl rutile nnium B.C. 

The same ttitag has rwcrtlv happened with ref CMC? to Phoenician 
oiyLhoSe^y. An elaborate account of the ancient Phoenician myth* 
v *a written in thi- firal mltiry by Phflo of Bybfoa, eomulcrabk’ parti 
of whose work hn r ? Iiwn preserved in the form nf citation* by the his> 



r* I Fhiiiiljiu- Frbocf-n. Mrdinrt HiEjii 

i:PTiw-:fi *|<h h;r ■(» IWlWf l 

k-rian Eusebius. There wu no me*** of telling haw reliable Philo"* 
report wis, until the tableti of TU* Shamrnb were unearthed about ten 
years ago. Thfif have yielded, and ire At ill yielding ai the study nl 
them progresses, an cuormoui Slim of new knowledge T^RardjaajE the 
religion and mythology of northern Syria m the age of the Hebrew 
patriarchs. On the whole the account of Philo of Bybloa has been shown 
to be remarkably accurate, especially when allowance is made for the 
natural evolution of the myths themselves during the millennium and 
more which elapsed between I he time when the tablets were Written 
and the aye in which Philo lived. 

Along with such archcolc^ical'literary »ur«a we have a!*o archeologi¬ 
cal-artistic material), i. e. representations of ancient life in contemporary 






WHAT SITAN THESE STORES* 


Cl SO) 


statue*. relief*, mosaics. mural polfllmgJir the decoration of paltry vessels 
IB*! ihe like, and the imagei on seali and rains- The figure* *f Assyria u. 
emperor* engaged in mmt or ffl the chase arc familiar in the mural reliefs 
from their palaces- Fhifiltine* wai.h their peculiar feathered head-drr** 
an be seers depicted on Ihe walls of Ihe palace of Rameses III *1 
Mfiiincl Tiabii in Egypt I> » Image* of gads and gndtata ihow 
how Ihe form* and attributes of theac deUie* were conceived. Costumes, 
fuftiiturt r utensils, building* arc illuireated in early lime? by peSirfi and 
bCAIp ami in later times by rains, paintings, and mcHtfi- All these bear 
immediate and contemporary witness to the Umdeft of human life in 
bygone times. 

Over against both niTbeolojprnl-lilerary documents and artistic repre¬ 
sentation- of anriral life stands the other fn*in group of nrcheologiad 
maleriati. cErtujiitipg of the actual buildings and objects which were 
used. The Eine between, these groups Is not absolute, because the sat me 
abject may belong to both. The mural relief which depicts an Assyrian 
monarch at war was also a part of the jalics in whirh he lived- The seal 
which beat* a man's name add title ansi a picture of itimelbing belonging 
to the world id which he lived is also the seat which he used to attest 
hu contracts and Other documents. In general, however, the fits tine lb II 
between inscriptions and graphie representations on the nnc hand ud 
budding remains and artifacts on the other holds good. 

Albright ha* pointed oul that id Palestine and Syria the archeological 
remains thus far belong chiefly to the second group, whereas Egypt and 
Mesopotamia have afforded Urge c|«antJtres of literary and artistic 
material (AS 1038, 180 f>. The scarcity of inscriptions in Palestine is 
especially remarkable. Just enough has been found to show that writing 
MS m com mop we and to make Us wonder why more examples qf it do 
not appear- Doubtless the main iwou is* for the most part, that perish' 
abb materials were used {j Iti) , As for artistic representations Id put 
beside the tomb paintings of Egypt and the Assyrian muni reliefs, there 
are painted tombs in Palciline from the Hellenistic ptritM!, and; at Tele*- 
Jat el-Gbaseul in the Jordan valley a few exlrmordinary but fragmentary 
remains ol wall paintings from long before the lime of Abraham have 
been discovered <| 14+) . We have also beautiful examples of the gem- 
rutters art in some of the &ealn p such as the lion on the seal of S heraa , 
from Megiddo, or the cock on Ihe seal of Jaaianiah found at Tell eOr 
Kasbeh The exquisite little ivory panels of Samaria and 

Mrgiddo must not be forgotten {§ 1M) - lender the head of artalic rtpre- 
sentalions may be included also—with apologies for such an «tension of 


ill 


LM1KUUDCTIOX 


*1 


lht trrtn ' artistic '■—many j mafias and; figurines. The Ramin period hi: re 
Lhh ban more Iq offer tspeciill^ in the form of mosaic pavement*. Most 
of I he em.-, however, are later thau the age of Ihe New Te« l ament There 
in some Greek and Hainan statuary, especially from Avalon and Samaria, 
but not a put deal. Very little ban survived fre-m the HeUeniltic period. 
On the whole it in Undoubledly true that MhIIh, as compared with 
Other land*. ■ poor in thii type of material {j 1^). 

Palestinian archeology ii thus mainly dependent on mnierisli af the 
other kind, the remain* of tire actual buildings and objects which were 
used by the people of ancient times. Even in this respect the visitor who 
comes to Palestine from Greece or Egypt MUCOt fail to be struck with 
the relative paucity of the materials To the tourist a Pale»timata exca¬ 
vation presents a rather forlorn appraitaftCr- An American Lady who had 
been shown the intricate male of foundation wall* uncovered m Beth- 
aur w#» heard to remark an die left, H IP* a shame to spend money m a 
thing like that:' She would have been surprised to learn that archeolo- 
giiU considered this excavation eminently successful. Of course the 
archeologist would he delighted to find buildings more fully preserved, 
but the scieulshe importance of an excavation earnout be measured by 
the completeness of its architectural remains Roman times are naturally 
better represented architecturally thin are the earlier periods. In Trans¬ 
jordan especiallyp and above ail at Jemsh, there are remains of buildings 
which compare favorably with anything to be seen in Greece or Italy. 

With regard to tbo objects of daily life—tools and Weapons, vessels, 
jewelry— jt may be said that Palestinian eaCavalioni have yielded as 
much as those of any land except Egypt- The incomparable Egyptian 
climate hu allowed many kinds of material to survive which in other 
countries have perished entirely. Wood, cloth, skin, papyrus, and the 
like arc almost never found in Fa I ell ini an extra nations except in eat- 
bontzed fragments. Only objects m (tone, metal, day* or olher reUti vdy 
imperishable materiab remain. 

fl. A comparison of the relative value of archeological and literary 
evidence for the rcConsErtlCtion of ancient life and history shows that 
each has ita peculiar advantage? and disadvantage-- We have already 
observed that literary documents are subject, in the course of trans¬ 
mission, lu more or lea? modification. This may bo duo to error* in 
copying ot trandatipg them, to misundcrataridmg by edit™ or by writer* 
who quote them, or to tendcudoU-s alterations, unconscious or deliber- 
*l*„ in accordance with the special purposes for which they are repro¬ 
duced, The historical critic must be very skilful to detect such modifi- 







WflAT WFA-* THESE BIOSES? 


ii *u 


a 

rntiiTjj>'i iM get thick df them Eo [hr original form of thr text. frequently 
he may have suspicion a or conjcdum which he has no means of verify¬ 
ing, and te can ncv« tell how many jHiinU may dudt him altogether. 
Over against this difficulty, artheclugirjM rvidrncr ha.* the tmmmK 
advantage of Wing contemporary fif*t hand Ettltmofiy, not object 
to test 4*1 corruption. recension. or other alien item. To be m«. this 
k utily relatively true. Even in inscnplionj there are sometimes stonc- 
rultcrs errors, md an archcdogical'EilCiary document may be itself a 
rwcnikm of an earlier tomposiE bn. The Babylonian Creation story, 
for example, had already gone through considerable literary iruusinron 
and modification Wort it wa$ copied on the tablets found at N’inevcb. 
Even to, however, it is much nearer the earliest form than is the version 
of item*so*, as quoted by laic Greek authors Simchirly the my E hulogjir al 
texts of Hat Shamrah already embody, no doubt, much development 
and modification, but they at* cpntemporary witness for the beliefs 
df the time when they were written, and have thus a great advantage 
over the late form attested by Philo of Eybtos. 

It is not to be assumed, of course, that because a document is Con- 
temporary it is nrce warily arruratr. The intcriptiun of a king, fur 
example, recounting hit conquest*, may bo highly colored and exagger¬ 
ated- War-bulletins an not notable as models of the strictest veracity 
in any age. It b always possibly therefor^ that a later historian** 
account, even after centuries of literary transmission, may be more 
accurate in some respects than a record carved m stone by an eye wit¬ 
ness. If the inscription of Xing Me*ha irta the Moabite Slofir «nd the 
acratlM nf the same cv«Tta in 4 King* A at* not entirely in areopl 
{{ l&T). ur if the account of ihe of Jerusalem given by the prism- 
tabLet of Sennacherib does not a^rec in every detail with the narrative 
in £ Kings IB-IU, it dm not folkn# M a matter of course that the 
biblical ireord is at fault, even though the historian mmi frankly con- 
aider that peuibiliLy At the same Lima, other things being equal, the 
fart that archeological evidence ti immediate and contemporary is a 
substantial point in its favor, 

Another point, mi m commonly realised, b worth mentioning. 
Students of tbe Middle Ages have observed that the work* of medieval 
theologians were written by and for the kamd r whereas the eat bed tils 
expressed and served the faith uf the Ituuwi. Something like ihis b 
true of ancient limes. The conception of Greek religion conveyed by 
classical literature u quite different from that which has grown out of 
archeological investigation. The la tier reveals aspects of an Underlying 


fi it) 


iinHDvcvK)^ 


*3 

layer of folk-rdijpun which conkl never have inferred from the 

literary deposit* of theology and ritual A new’ scope nml ptrsfKdnt 
hiv* L ihiis bctn given to the flolr pirlurr. 

S» it It also with the culture and religion of ancient Umet. The 
Old Testament was written by spirillial leaders who stood far ahead of 
lheir feltowB. Only by their ■ Hark* on current ktf*% and practices, 
"hich arc often obscure to n» now, am ut goes* what thr people at 



Fi*. t BkjJlHjg ItueeiptMv Iran* Mip4i C ffllBOlt No. U. p. *j 

large wfifr ddfljf and thinking. Archeology, disclosing much uf the back¬ 
ground in popular religion, ha*-. helped us materially to understand what 
the pmphtib rnodemned. The position of the religious leader* them- 
kIvk, o in the Bible. »t«mh out more sharply ami vividly 

against this background, fi course il U the teaching of the leaders 
whkh is of primary significance fuF U*. and therefore the literary record 
k incomparably mow imp>UMan( U *F U4 I ban the archeological evidence, 
but for the purple of a aimplelt and accurate hhl^tical picture, and 
for the understand mg of the literary u)im« themselves. the knowl¬ 
edge uf popular faith and worship gained from nrcheological rcscancl' 1 
il very significant. 














S?4 WHAT MX*S TIIEfll STOVES r* (|ttl 

iS, An n^iinsL these advantages il niuiL be admit ltd that irclu^ 
ologiya I evidence at its best ii fragmentary And disconnected. A liter¬ 
acy record teJU A Conscent i*r, relatively complete, and therefore much 
clarer itory, Tht afrhecloginil evidence Li like a pldure-puulu which 
mmt be painfully pieced I Dgdhd from little bits, with much uncertainty 
rcff&rdLng the correct pLa« of thb or that fragment* and with many woe¬ 
ful paps ithl unfilled in the end. To be sure, apparently unrelated bit* 
of evidence wid frequently tit together in i surprising way- Just u a 
akiMiHl pci■ mender can sometimes reconstruct federal complete vessels 
from * nt*M of potsherds, and put together enough of others to deter¬ 
mine their form, ware, and decoration. so scattered and broken bits of 
evidence of many kln4i Can often by skill and ingenuity be put together 
Id make a picture sufficiently dear and complete to tell much that wju 
not known previously. But when the moat has been made of the com¬ 
bined malerink the tinal result in many caws is still like a building 
inscription found in lh* forum &| Jeruh: Il gives the year in which a 
certain building was erected and the names of many local official*, but 
the bWek on which the Inscription was carved was re-used m some 
later conitjuetioti and a square hole wfcl cut through it r destroy lur the 
words which taM what the building w*i whose erection was recorded 
.yi Lot* often, when the remits of an e¥CtiValioti are assembled 
iotne important piece of evidence is missing. The Archeologist's only 
euRiforl Ls lhe knowledge that at the most unexpected moment awl in 
the most unexpected pLace new material may he found to fill the holes 
in the picture. 

There are some exceptions to the rule that literary sources are more 
connected and complete than those provided by archeology. In the 
case of that Intermediate type of materia! which we have catted arche¬ 
ological-literary it Sometimes happens that a cuEnpoflitioai of which nnly 
fjwgmcnts have been preserved by literary truimiukri b recovered 
in A more complete hum by the finding of an ancient eopy of the tat 
Vp to the present tieue dbcoverirt of just this sort have rarely if ever 
been made in the course of scientific excavation; the best examples that 
come to mind are those of manu*cripU found in the libraries of old 
uionajttiries, such as Lhc u Shepherd of Hennas H and the “ Teaching 
of the Twelve Apostles, 1 ' or in the gtnizah of an old synagogue, jueh ns 
the Hebrew* text of SLrxch and the Zadultite documents found by 
ISchcchlrr Perhaps the must remarkable of all inch discoveries thus far 
is the ext re ordinary collection of Matiicbaean writing* found only a 
few yean ago In the ruins of a Coptic hoy*e by some Egyptian peasants 


(i m 


mrnmscnem 


& 

for fertilizer. The Scripture* e [ this sect. to which Augustine 
Iwhnged lieferc tit became n Christian, were condemned by the Christ inn 
authorities. and for minj centuries were known only through quotations 
by tin? Christtio writers who attacked the religion. or m tale versions 
prestri'pit ih the Orient. The new discovery enables Jlistwiiiis of religion 
to Study Munich a ci s m at first hand in a copy of its ova wrilin^ frum 
the Lime af Augustine The fret tint these partir-idnr discoveries were 



Fif. 3 IbTiuif Fluil [Jj *| tklli-zu.r (BA^an So. 13 . pi II 


dot made by icrentiEtf excavation does not remove them from the cate¬ 
gory of ftirheobfiicfl] nrnteHiL Such ft discovery may be nude it any 
time hy lit a rchco logical expedition ill the course of a regular navAtian. 

A find of this sort, however, must always be exceptional. In the nature 
of the cue literary sources ■» generally m&f* complete Slid more Odd- 
netted than arvEieoEngicftl evidence can be. This is especially true or the 
nuh •Ulcfmry a^hcoJogicftJ materials. Buildings, pottery, implement*, 
jewelry, and the tike cannot tell a connected story. The connection mu*K 
be supplied by ft process comparable to ft detective 1 ! use of clues in appre¬ 
hend i fig ft crimiuJ. As the visitor to m mcdievftl cftst.Ee must use his 
inLRganatian, aided by old records ibd stories, to see the empty rooms 
furnished and peopled u they wee* of yott, yet fladi his imagination 











m WHAT MfcaW TIIEKt STOKZS? lt«) 

■iliumlaid! JiEhil flLLidrtJ even by the «M* hare doncs, bo the student of 
ptcfartlnt.v jiiu^t rumblne whli is Mind in the earth with what is tokl 
bj I hr lil era ry mju«« lo get a full am! lifelike picture of «dini times. 

i$, (lumg parity to its Ntpinluy condition amt parity lu iU 
essential tllturt, areheologira! material I* subject to another disadvan¬ 
tage. That an object is contemporary. authentic,. and even important 
hity be clear,, yet one may t* mu bio to identify or explain it with 
certainty. One may be mro it I# significant without knowing what it 
Its significance dtpcmll upon its interpretation, and the inter¬ 
pretation is frequently uncertain. [n the HellrnMic level of the excava¬ 
tion o f Ikth lUr there appeared a myiterkiui group of tubs ur viU 
ffig.3) Their form and arrangrincnL showed that they were designed 
for some |ftrtkuUr purpose, but what that purpose WU the rtfsviton 
could nut determine. Visitors wrre asked to make Suggestions Some 
thriii^hl I he va t a were connected with wi ne-mali lag, others with dyeing 
4-1 nr rvrii jlu veiled a cheese-factory, while Other" regarded the installa¬ 
tion m a bath room. The published account of the excavation wavers 
between a dyeing plant and a blith room (SCB 10 fj. The interesting 
hut lanlaliclnfc construction waa plainly a piece of authentic and immedi¬ 
ate evidence of ancient life, but the key tu itl interpretation was missing 

The distinct bn between fact and interpretation is of the greatest 
importance for the bearing of arrbeohigieal evidence on the meaning and 
value of the Bible, Popular writer# (Uld speakers loosely use such expres- 
sions as that hl h wbeolntfy prove* H this and that, which b fike laying 
that science ur hiltory proves a proposition. What is fitnl as proved 
by arrhmingy h frequently some individual'! Interpretation, rather than 
anything dearly and certainly shown by the evidence Itself. The fact 
that the excavator himself may be respondhle for the interpretation 
do** not guarantee its truth. Excavators, being human, sometime* xdopl 
Ida readily interpretations which make their discoverirs srtni especially 
important. One can never be sure ef any alleged result of archeology 
without knowing the evidence on which it is based. 

perhaps the most conspicuous instance of confusing interpretation 
and evidence is the supposed confirmation of the biblical account of the 
Rood discovered by Woolley at Ur and by Matkay and Lnngdon at Kiih.* 
Between occupational levrb at both of these sites were found thick 
layers of ilt conti uliufi no remains of human Life. At Ur the layer was 
more that! eight fe*l deep and consisted of “clean clay 1 '. Below this 

ML L. IViMlIry. I'r *i IV Mirr HWi; S. it (tif9> 


til irt-W 


nfrnqtopcnoH 


appeared ttjiLis i ei evkkoc* of human o»upilbD T The mam ton M ere 
convinced that U»y had found lhe dr|w^it tefl by I hr flcH»d described 
in Gened* The fai t \s ih.nl this intcr|if- litinn is not only uncertain; 
it h »l even prdbdbk 

*4, Far the iat«pitliikli of bii materials the archeO-W* t U largely 
dependent ufvn literary wuires nhtit such *rr available. At Aihrus 
the excavator* of tho Agon have men Sr aueh n-e of description* of 
■ ■■'mil Alheni and iln building* given by (inn'k writers, especially 
Fautimii. When the expedition to Antioch m-m* organized, Ah rthml^ 
live preliminary study wa* made of nil reference* to Antioch in literary 
*witrw. By «urh mean* it it often ficredde Eo identify hi i i bi i tie's and 
jhifkiTlciiiL uhjerl* by their cofTr^umtErnr# with what (hr ftfilfH trll 
about them. 

Such ktrnlifiratinns rimy tie merely (t jniEler of precarious inference. 
unl«& there are invriptitnir or other mElSatien^ nf exart dales, The 
English excavator* of Oph-eE. the wUt hti item hill of Jerusalem., found 
evidence of various slagc* in I hr bokhlinH end »piin of the city tfflll 
On ll^e basis ui a rcheolo^ira I evidence they approximate date* 

to certain portion* of the masonry. They then proceeded tn connect 
Lh«e with the names of David. Solomon. and Nrhemiab. of whose budd¬ 
ing operations we read in the Old Testament. There were no building 
marriptinii* un ruing these individuil^, nor even any evidence that such 
Him had ever lived. Nothing in the cxnvitbn itself would have aug- 
Itv^ted tlwt David budl ■ particular tnwer and SolumoA made repair; In 
It. ur that a Inicr patch in the wall was made by Nr-heJuiah. Having the 
biblical MSOHOIAh however, the excavators found that the archeological 
remain* could he fitted mlo the story in a convenient and attractive 
way. and they formulated their interpret*! ion * accordingly, In much 
the sani t way oifeesrivt phases of the buildings at Samaria were identi¬ 
fied as the palaoe* off Qmri and Ahab. In Inrth ease* the literary *oupms 
suggrjitLed I he Interpretation of the airhratogiral evidence - 

ft should go without -JiyiriK tI luI interpretalions of thh sort ihould 
Ik- carefully scrutinized before being regarded a* anything more than 
working hyfKilhescs. They have often proved mtatalwp in the past, 
including Iht insLaners just given. Nil orally I hey are dependent upon 
tie Correct dating of the materia Ik. which for lk earlier periods of his¬ 
tory ran rarely come closer thin a century ur two. This leave* abundant 
room for error in connecting objects Of buildings wilh particular 

individual!. 

One (if | he most likely identi fim I ion^i of this sort may ht riled aa 




WHAT meax tF irst wo^ta? 


(IMJ 


±e 

illiulralihg both the pcsdiilitia ind Lhe limitations of connecting litlf 
^Dfbl discoveries with individuals and events known from Jilermiy 
sourett. The Siioam inscription, discovered m 1KEK> in the tunnel which 
brio#* water from the Virgin's Spring to the Pool of &ilo*m at Jerusalem, 
letls how (he tunnel wan cut from either end until (he workers met. No 
names ere Hkestitintd, n*r is any date given. The language is 
Hebrew* and Ann the form or the alphabet usd it U evident that 
(he inscription is In he dated approximately tn the eighth century 
B. C, Now the XiaiR who reigfltd in JtmiaJcm at tltc end of the eighth, 
eeulurv was Hczckiah, and it is rotated in King* 40“ 80 that he * made 
the pool And the conduit and brought water into the City." Assuming 
the historical accuracy of this statement and the dating of the inscription 
in the eighth century, it ia reasonable to infer that the inscription 
amj biblical jiwiunt refer |® the »me accomplishment, If m K (he in¬ 
scription come* from the time of Hrxtkkh and supplements the infor¬ 
mal Jon given by the Bible. Bcdh (be uncertainly and the probability 
of this cone Ills inn ihontd be noted. It is an excellent illustniicm of the 
relation between archeological ami literary- sources. 

The " stable* of Solomon H at Megiddo may be Cited as another 
example Here again there is no inscription tn connect the buildings 
directly with Solomon. The stratum to which they belong! however, i a 
shown by its archeological context to belong to the lime in which 
Solomon lived. The form of the buildings shows clearly that they were 
stahleii, Given these facts, (he connection with Solomon h inferred from 
the mention of Megiddo in I Kings P: IS bj one of the place* in. which 
important building was dona Uttdtr Solomon, nod from the reference a 
few verse* later to “ the cities for his chariot* and the cities for hit 
horsemen/ 1 While this identification it thoroughly probable, it cannot 
be definitely proved 

Kveti inscriptions are not free from difficulties of interpretation. The 
nwimn g of a sentence often depends upon a particular ward* which 
may be indistinct or completely effaced. Even in Greek end Latin 
inscription the stone may be broken or damaged so that important 
words, especially al I he ends of the lines, are destroyed or tendered 
illegible. Semitic inscriptions, because they fail at a rule to express 
!bc vowel sound*, art especially difficult to interpret.. From the abundant 
illustrations which might l>t cited we may *drct one afforded by the 
larhish fetters. In the fifth ELftr of Letter JI there is a word which the 
editor of (ha official publication reads as yb&r and (nmslat.es ,L inuetlj. 
gale (and pUEUih) " Other interpreter* have taken the second letter m 


ISTKSEHJCnOS 


a r and hat* therefore translated “ rcrajia*d„^ Closer estaminaticin of the 
potsherd, however, convinced C. H Gordon and H, L, Ginsberg that 
the letter ad quntioh an 'oyrn. The ink had run into a little nenttch 
id the potsherd, thui giving the letter ■ tail and making it look like ft 
htik- The Vdfd should therefore be |ttd y'kr “ afflict ,p i BASO R No. 70, 
p. 13; No. 71. p, H; No. 3S, p. 10). 

The lengths to which even an emblem scholar may go in deducing 
fake interpretation* from min Inked reading* of inscription 1 ; may be 
seen in the theory of Grimme that Mow* «nd the X*rM*tjt« were explicitly 
referred Id in the Sinai tie UucriptioBJ (£ 1U). 

French scholars have recently propounded an elaborate theory renard- 
ing the origin of the Phoenicians, based on doubtful occurrences of such 
piace-naniH as Aahdod and Kadeah in the Ras Shamrah tablets ||j 113). 
These tablets, indeed, have proved a happy hunting ground for makers 
of theorist, Nfore thorough study of the teats, which should hive come 
first. h*g destroyed the flimsy foundations of Ettoit of the« theories 
Unfortunately they have already, in some instance*, made their way into 
popular articles and textbooks. 

Thus far the result* of our Enquiry are largely negative. More posi¬ 
tive conclusions will appear later. Meanwhile we have at least cleared 
the ground for constructive effort* which will stand elimination Nothing 
permanent is gained by hastily accepting theories which Ignore the 
rttetttul character of archeological evidence and the difference between 
fact and interpretation. 



CikKin 11 


TEXT AND LANGUAGE 

B?fwr wt ra n tell wrlknt I hr Biblr means, i t mint kncnr wbml il 
lavi TK* 1 find +irp toward a 1rnr IiFM-fn-rwtnndmg of the Bible, ihrre- 
fait*, in lia p-^1 nLili*hi kbe earliest nnd most nccurntr form or the IrXl 
which can he ascertained Abidance I nwjiTxl this end rofty fflirty Ik 
J towfilfcl from arebnilnjiy , Er ha* h\H£ befll %h? dicin «f liibltral scholar* 
that tcty (iHy nucmscripta of tlk# bouki of the Bible knight hr recovered 
I tv ftrdicalopirn I mcirch. Wliil would we not give for a fir-.t edition. 
mi to s|Mral^. of Isainfc or of one of Paul a leticrsi Unfortunately no melt 
treasure exist*, *> tor cm u*r khow. The great manuscript* on which 
textual critics are uuitsdv drp™Wal far th^ MMitrudiHl nf I ho text of 
(hr Bible are very muck later, 

Our chief Hebrew tiinlMnfpti do not go tuvrlt bfitifld the ninth 
re-din ry A.B„ about a thounaikrl years after I he eonk^osilion of I be 
Intent lN»k» df the Old Testament. Thr great eare taken in copying and 
raffCtka sitvrt I hr first eenljtry. however, hu preirrvfil with remark¬ 
able an-nnicy anil umFnrmily the Hebrew trat as known at about 
KIO A.D. Fur the Septcagml, the Greek translation of the Old Testa¬ 
ment. moreover. we have much older manuscript*. The great C-mJei 
Siiuiiticui aikil I hi- Codr* VatHBttin rrmr from the fourth century A.D.. 
and the Code* Atosandrinu* from the following century. This lrtnv 
lation was originally made, Fur the most part, during the third and 
sramd centuries before Christ, So far A* It ha* ilsdf been accurately 
transmitted, I Hereford it help* ui to restore *rv ciHirr fortti of tbe 
Hebrew- text than I bat which is attested by our Hebrew manuscript!. 
To i Irntr extent this it true of the Samaritan version of tbe Pentateuch 
also, not to mention the Syriac and Lot in, translation*. 

For thr New Testament the laps# of lintr IhHvWfl the ixunposition nf 
tbe books and the writing of imr oldest matmicriptH was not so great 
fti il w** w-klh the Did Testament. The three great Greek codices named! 
above ion tain not only tbe Scpluagint but also the New Testament; 
they are thus. not more than two ahd a half centuries later than the tlma 
wheEk the book* were written. What i* I rue of the Septutgioi, more¬ 
over, is I rue bIki of tbe snriecit versions »f tbe New Testament, The 
DM Syriac translation, probably made in thr second century, with the 
Did LaLiik aikij the Coptic, both made in the third century^ afford evi* 

30 


TEXT AMO LAKhjVAlTE 


31 


lllu-T) 


tknw of an even earlier form of the Greek text thin that which U |TOI 
by the Greek manuscripts. 

Ail tktt, however* belong distinctly let t he eatepiry of literary alter 
than arebwlojlieil trial emit The Code* Viljcmux h** betn in the 
Vatican library for an unknown number of centuries- ^hile Tint *lwiy% 
ACCtarihte to Hholurs nor adequately published until the late niiLctccftlb 
rristury. it ted lirver been Inal and hence did not have to be discover*! 
Similarly the CwJex AleXandriUUs wa* preserved in Alexandria and 
later in Conelanlmnple until it was presented to the king of England 
in the seventeenth century, So too most ipf the host of lesser manta wript* 
Used hy |h* textual critic* have been kept in libraries for Crtilufir*. 
In contrast to il of tbe*e h the Codex Sinailicus was p ract[rally lost in 
I hr library of the monastery at ftlt. Sinai II might have perished alto¬ 
gether if il ted not hern found by Tischendorf in the middle of the 
nineteenth century. Even this, however, can only in Ihc l»nad«t sense 
b# called an nrehrokqpeal discovery. We shall therefore leave out of 
consideration here the manuscripts found in libraries. 


26. On the other hand, we need not confine our attention to materials 
discovered in the course of scientific excavation. A great deal of what 
ia most pertinent for pur purpose has actually been found by natives 
and sold to antiquity dealers, through whom it has come into the hands 
of western collectors and scholars. There ii no essential difference 
between objects discovered In this way and tho$e found m cttracatkuis. 
The manner of the discovery does not itfpf the character of fche object 
as archeological materia! As a matter of fact, accidental discoveries 
often provide the initial smpetun for scientific excavateHfc, Strictly 
speaking, of Course, the argument here used applies alfO to manuscripts 
preferred in libraries. From the standpoint of expediency, however* 
it Kcmi belter to emit these from our present discussion and to include 
only manuscripts add other objects which have com* mtl of the ground, 
whether dug up by peasants or by archeologists. 

t7. Except it) lhDM countries which used cuneiform writing and clay 
tablets, extensive literary documents were usually written in ancient 
times on papyrus, leather, or some other perishable material. Only in the 
extra ordinarily dry dimate and soil of Egypt, and particularly in the 
Fayyum, have such minuartpU survived from Bible times, and it is 
from Egypt that almost all early manuscripts thus far excavated have 
come. The only important exceptions are the papyri and vellum docu¬ 
ment* found At Herculaneum, at Dura on the Euphrates., and in 


WHAT MEAN 


Stowes? 


* 11 * 7 *; 


» 

southern Palestine, imJ of thet the Ofily one cc^tiinifig biblical material 
la the Dun fragment of Tatian'i Dklrssaron (|«0) a which, important 
BJi ^ ^ toutrihutci nothing of much ligaiGcuiee for the test of Ihe 
New TeilamcnL 

The day tablet* used for cuneiform writing (§ 1J&) wen retativdy 
imperishable, If, ns somr wbokn of a paM generation eiodended, part* 
of the Old TtiluncUt were originally written ih Cuneiform script on tky 
liblcti r we might hope to recover some of them. That the Babylonian 
cuneiform system wjm Used in Palestine for Canoamle as watt as Akka¬ 
dian ji shown by the Astima tablet* (| ?1). Even the alphabetic cunei¬ 
form script of the Has Shatura h tablet* (| I)B) might conceivably have 
been used: one £fca.m.pJe of it, in fact, has actually been found in Bale*- 
tnie (BASOR No, S* pp. 3-0; No, *3, pp. IS f) , That the eariy Israelites 
may have emphtytd clay tablets and cuneiform writing for their earliest 
literature b thiLi ooC wholly fantastic. It ii improbable. nevertheless 
■t any tile, while day tablets of the Canaepat* period are found in 
Palestine, none bearing any biblical t«t Ls known. 

Alphabetic writing on potsherd* foatraCa) wu certainly practised 
113 Palestine during the time When the book* of the Old Testament were 
being written. One of the most eminent Palestinian archc&logialj once 
remarked to the present writer that he Would not be surprised to Uncover 
some day ■ collection of ostna containing saying* of the Old Testa- 
ment prophet*. That such a discovery 1 Would not be altogether strange 
u by thr tradition that the sayiug* of Mohammed w*rt jotted 

d&WB by his hearers on palm leave*, bill of leather, flat pieces of bona 
and wood, and inch other materials as were at hand when the prophet 
spoke. Inscribed pouherds contemporary with the prophets have been 
found, ami *c shall ice that for our main purpose they are ealrenaely 
Important, yet oemr found thlli far bear* any text from the Old Testa¬ 
ment. Twenty Oilraca bearing *crws fm® the Greek teal of the gospels 
wm found some YMn ago in Egypt, They are considerably later, how- 
ever r than the great uncial nsaq umriplj, having been written by poor 
Christian* during the Arab conquest of the seventh century Stone 
inscriptions found in th* Bytonrtine churdie* af Syria quote tcriptural 
Icits. A mosaic pavement of about «0 AU., found at Salooa in Dal 
dutia, give* the opening verse of the forty-second PsaJm. The*- and 
other similar rumple*, however, are too kte and too fragmentary to offer 
anything of value for determining the original ten of the Bible. 

*8. A HltKCwhat moffl important example of a *erae from the Bible 
inscribed an an object of relatively imperishable material £s a lajje 


C* Wj 


TEST AXIS UANcit'Ani; 


Kilr nuidc of clay, HOW in the muwlam of Ik Orknlal Institute of the 
Uai^thity of Chicago (AJSL Iftftfi., pp. )H4-IU3). It was evidenlly used 
far jUfflpjfljf the bitumen with which the nsijuthb o-f winr jnrt weft Veiled, 
A little bilumm. in fuL at ill adhem Id it. The face of the ^i9, which 
u about five amt three <|ltflrlerw inches b duiuietier, bnn the Hebrew 
test of 4&:ll- H Sf«b hath been it ease from his youth, 

and be hath settled on his tees, and hath not l>een emptied from vessel 
to vr«c], neither hath he f^nc into captivity: therefore hin lute remained 
in hi fin, and Ills scent as not changed.* 1 Pcrhap- some cmuiii-nl yjlIuc wan 
though! to rndde in these words for preserving tbe wine in the jan which 
were scaled with this stamp; or perhap* the quotation was intended to 
certify the quality of the wine- The form of thr tent quoted, except for 
a few slight variations which were probably mistakes on the part of the 
maker of thr seal, is the same as that of the M Anoretic Text, i.e, the 
slinditi] text Htf the synagogue, as found in the principal manuscripts &f 
the (Md Testament. White the peal was purchased from a dealer, so that 
the place and time of it h origin aro unknown, the forms of the tetters 
indicate that it may be as early as the first or second century after 
Christ. 1 hough il may be as late as the sixth century, fn any case it is 
older by several centuries than any of thr standard manuscript* of the 
Old Testament, and its a^rametit with them, as far as it goes, atte*L» 
the accuracy with which the text was transmitted between the time 
when the seal wan made and the tinir when the ihbelu scripts were written, 
An interestitig and very early bit of archeological r vidtDCV which may 
have a tearing on the Lonl’a Prayer has been known for some time, 
but its possible significant^ has only recently been rcaliud. A eurimjx 
and obsccrra anagram, popular through I be Middle Ages in many places, 
has been bared back to Roman times- One example, not Uter than the 
fourth century, is at Cirencester. England; another from the third cen¬ 
tury was excavated ifn the campaign of 1031-32 at Dura on the Euphrates, 
Even earlier are two copies discovered at Pompeii; these must come from 
the first century, since the city Wa* destroyed in 70 A,D. The anagram 
reads as follow* (in pome iittlanoe* the order from top to bottom is 
reversed >: 

ROTAS 
OPERA 
TENET 
A 1 IP 0 
S A T 0 Ft 





34 


WHAT Wait thehi stojiea ? 


i li «M> 


It h*. h«n obwrved that the* feller. may be tn^i i„ a crou. M a* 
to »pdl the firtt two word* of tie Lord a Prayer in Latin tmm top to 
Iwltafn and fit™ left tu right, with ah A and an Q fcllowm# 

them in each tt.*, TTpr^enliiMf rup^Uvrij Alpha and Omega, thiuir 

A 


P 

A 

T 

E 

R 

A PATERNOSTER G 
O 
S 
T 
E 
R 


lMnle oUw KfJuftlKIU havt- b™ prfl |W «d (BA H_ 13 ff) p it ia q U i| c 

ff - ™*. t?lii ™ lhe i ® fet ™“kf «* ^ niyfltrioui 

If W, there must hav* beer? a B rc.up u-1 Latin-speaking Chriiti*n» ml 
“T™ 11 ? 1 ijj th c third quarter rbf the flm century This curious in^Htn 
™ NLtrafcire, if the inteFprelalkti givfen above U Correct, a Heat* the 
UK or lie Lord. P«yer in * Latin trwn.-tUtlcei at the very lime when 
our gc-pth Woe be,n B written. Not only the!: even though it gl „„ on („ 
two >t iupport, Matthew'. fern, of lie prayer m, aauut that 

«tv«ti by Luke, which tinny scholar. have regarded u the origin.] form 
for lhi* nn. S rtm ,fiv« ihe word. "Our Father." who™.. Lulra', form 
brguiJ .imply Father " (Ml, «:«; Ul 11:4) . 

mora . ****** wHn™« to the tent of tie Bible ut 
b f ** ?S V du ™'; fnKl « ««* >■*»>!- During the lit, e.gh 
Urath Mtd the nineteenth Century a greet many papyri* document, 
were found in Egypt, They included important teiL, of lLcucw! liter*- 

toTe“f Th P* ««** uJ *'***9 ■* m Efiipt from the 

™ or the Ptolcnut* and hie, ratrig The importance of the* 

_]| s for the study of the Bible will be diKitucd later (§41), U ntil 
Grenfell end Hunt, near the clow of the kit century, mdr their *.«■ 
1 dWVVCn ' of 101,1 tA P*P3« *1 Oiyrhynchu* in the F.vvum do 


xll*a-5Gj 


TEXT ASH U.fGUACE 


35 


P*pjrui text of any portion of the Bible had been Found. Among their 
finds weir not only I he famous Saying* of QrH't, In which ve shall 
rettiriL Uttr f| 46), blit also a number of fragment* at various books of 
the Sihk and an extensive mintLvript of the third or fourth century 
containing a large |qrl of the Epistle to the Hebrew* 

Other more or le** c-ompFelc manuscripts of book* of thr S>w Testa¬ 
ment have come to light within the past half century. Ann mg th£*e 
the Freer Manuscript of the gd4|*K bought near Cairo in I9fl{] am I now 
in Washington, is especially important. Wt shall have occaskm to refer 
to it again. An important manuscript of the Coptic- translation of the 
Gospel of John, " the only early Gospel rtianuneripl of w hich we can he 
sure of the provenance, the place where it was found" was discovered 
at Qty rl-Kebir cm the Nile in IJW by Starkey, during an excavation 
by the British School of Archeology in Egypt under the direction eg Guy 
BruiUon, It whf probably written in the third quarter of the fourth 
century', fn L 9 u i an extraordinary mllcctjun of pnpyri. said; to have been 
found hy natives in jars in a Coptic graveyard, was purchased by 
A. Chester Beatty, hy whose name the collection li now known. A tew 
pieces belonging to the same group were acquired and published by the 
University of Michigan. This collection contains- extremely important 
third-century manuscripts or the Gospels and Acts, the Epistle* of Paut r 
and the book of Revelation. 

SW>. For the Old Testament too there are important papyri. The John 
EScbcidfl papyri of Eieklcb recefiHy published by Princeton Uuivcrrily, 
come from the early third Of even the late second century; they are llm*. 
a century or more earlier than the Codex Vatiranua, with which they 
agree for the mast part- The oldest uianu«mpl in the Mirhigan callec- 
tiou lam codes £g of the Greek text Of Number* and Deuteronomy, 
believed by Sir Frederick Kenyon to come from the earlier part of the 
second century AJ>. About half of this manuscript h&j bee-n preserved. 
Other manuscripts in the collection, written in the third and fourth 
centuries, include considerable portions of the l>ooks of Genesis, Ezekiel, 
Daniel, anti Esther, with Fragments of Isaiah. Jeremiah, and the Apocry¬ 
phal hook of Ecdc-iiasticus. hi well ai the last eleven chapter* of the 
hook of Enoch, an important Jcwhh work of the period between I he 
Old and New Testament*- 

Fragments of the Creak version of Deuteronomy arc preserved in a 
still older papyrui recovered from a mummy-case and now in the John 
Hylands Library nf Manchester. Published in (Q3$ by C. H Roberts, 
it is known as the Robrrts Papyrus. Up to the present I hi* ts the earliest 




(II 3M3> 




VrtiAT Str-AS TUUSE STOWES* 


tuETff” ****-+*** G**k 

of f r .T" f ™' thc *«« l > d < -‘ t[ ' ltrJr >' B.C., before Ihr hock 

j ■Si " 1 ' '' F "*"*>? "*> Gwk portions 

, nre [,lfl, ' dtd in * Un.ent.hlv fragmentary 

^5^^ T 1} " ! ,ll '‘ *“* “ ntj1 ^ to ** “f Ihr Cmfr* 
Alcynndnrri - than to that of the Code* V,li MJ)Ui , but M m t Scnw * 

Vel 7 ron!f- !l rt ,Mjhlj ™ lltm ' thjl1 [he dimepMCHa with the Code* 

VMfaeno, do not imJie.tr « different type of text h al do. merely the 
^ . lf ^ rtUiri to that .min men [it i JBL ISSt. w . 309 ff) 

ItrOMh “ S [»**"<*•* wter and puree form of the text of 111 
* litiiRffint than even the Vatican tnaouirnpL HempeJ ilio 

the pecuMf.ha, „f the papyrus iq some .Mail, reaches the eoncluii^ 

KT J' 3 lTa f!!' “i™ Gtrrk l T ,1,Ul,n f0U^l,, in tht olher m * nu - 

SSL!? 1 *.**“ *''<**' 1(1 111 #"» ‘“I Mints out »Jw the 

. fte lil ’I** 1 Goherta papyrus differs from the later 

?£?£ |W Ub^bu* copyist"* errors) it L. t| te , tc , the 

vitoam to Ehe 4U| P V PP ‘ l35f ^ 11 u ^Flrforfr «| tmrwrUEil 

=^S^= 5 t fc I[chr - ^ “ ■—» - 

Thu p>wm . 

«n|urj A D. AJbnjbt, tawevcr. on the Ixuis ^ compsH 

BC ““ft 1,fbrew writing from the first a«d J£„ d 
hirlwl .,n |1 r “** “ **“*“ f,c,m lI '" ^Iwi period 

[f ^ *?! 50 |J '" tlabl - v bcf *" 100 B,C iJBL 1937 Hffff) 

"f The Nash papyrus contains She ten commandmenti 
!, Bhttna (the Jewish confession of faith.* composer! 0 f tents from 

of our'standsrj n>i *" 1 ^ *** - l ™ differs from that 

f l , *, [Haourenpts: .1 may i fe a romhinacipn of the 

p ,T\l t - ^ f ,ven m *" d tM.tero.mmv, hot more 

E 2 S?*V l ’*T‘ f ™ ^ “ he *“* " f **«™«"* SntcmredUU 

lie tin M " lf *' lhf ' FXl by the Septuapict 

? ( ^ PJ ™; 14 “ "**«3*. therefore, to the 0 f ,hl 

’ |I MJlplr ' f " 1 mtofI ”n the ffehrea- teat. To find the oldest i; rfr i 
man^npl -P>^in K thr Hebrew teat ami the cidr* Hebrew maTu 
ompl supporting the Greek tart is rather The nerLub lf 

^but^]«ir , . 1 ’!rr ir ' ,l “ fl ^« lhEn, "<”■ ™fi*oce m ^ wc 

are able to reconstruct by using all of the evidence. 

31- These exarepfea may suffice to show bo. recent diseoverie, have 


TEST Aim LA.Tij E’AL'E 


ll 31? 


S7 


mcnftjml ihr. material available for tcftarfog the original text nf the 
OJd aiJti M<hv Test ■ men t $. £ir Frdrrick Kenyan afVimls that die evi- 
denrt; for Ehr t<ltE aJ Ehe New Te-il ament is much greater E luin for any 
r>Ehrr bank from antiquity Not only Ebe number of mant&cripl* murli 
IflTtfrr for I he Bible Elian for other ancient hnlingy they art- the 
ea di«i uf them* much nearer in date lo the timr* when the trait* were 
composed. Some of the papyri come from not more than n hundred and 
fifty yean after the go+pd* ami epistle* were written, whereas t he oldcsl 
flUlUUCripts of some tJ the classics 1 Greek ami Utin writers are removed! 
by an much as fifteen centuries from Iht lifetime* of the Authors iKStf 
tfl-7). 

h m no| to be assumed, of rcmr*e. that a nunuacripl is necessarily 
reliable because it is old. Many of tin- p^vri are poorly writ leu and 
full of obvious HMh. Where they differ from the lest of I he great 
mmttKtiptVt therefore, they do mi necessarily prrsuri'e superior read* 
ings. On the whole, however, they catty the leak cm3 tmdilion hack to 
An rariier than that which is a tilled by the other authorities. 

Where they agree with the later manuscript*, therefore, they afford 
important confirmation. On the whole this is their greatest servke. By 
and Large [hey rapport the text of our best edition* of ihe Greek >>w 
Tesla men [. In uu nvr have they furnished any entirely new rending 
of much significance. 

In one iusialnce the new evidence helps to remove a mistake which 
occurs in the commonly accepted teat. Jesus' reference to David 1 * out¬ 
ing the chow-bread fMark contains, in 1 he text iillh which we 

are familiar, the clause, H when Abiathar wa* high priest.” 11 hat been 
[minted out that the priest's mime was not Abkthnr but AhiineFech 
(I Samuel HI). Same important manuscript*, however, omit the errone¬ 
ous reference, and this omission b now supported by the Freer Mamj- 
script in Washington, li is thus fairly dear that the clause wm not a 
part of the original text but w»s inter Ini kler. probably in the tint 
place as a marginal note by ooma leader who recognized the incident but 
whose memory misled him regarding the name of the priest in Use story. 

A subsequent Copyist, followinf? an all too frequent practice, copied this 
margihal " gjo» n ak-Uig with the text. 

Most of the differences between the papyri and the taler ntDIUfiriptf 
are merely matters of wording and small deUik, The chief value of these 
minor virutktii h t h^l they help its dc termini ng the fe funilin * trv 
which the various manuscripts belong, and so tracing Ihe history 1 of the 
text. The papyri show that foe about two centuries after the books of 




WHAT MM Tflmc STG*E|> 


fit 3l-fl> 

tif New Te.Un.ern were written the exact wotrfing m, no. regarded 
« Of great moment. The ideas, not the words, . e ^ the primary object 
ef concern The same thing 111 true of the OW Testament until the 
rmbbu came to regard every word and letter *s inspired. By the etnl 
™ rtl,tur >' l "° or three dtoiiwt types of New Testament 

ITl . me cumnt - «* Bering significantly in content hut 
marked by definite verbal charectcriatie,. Subsequently. „ shown by 
the later manuscripts, there wa, further differential™. The history of 
I* lt.tuJ transmission of the New Tertamenl is . very complicated 
.echoIt*| subject, but it « of b*sk importance for accurate mterpre- 
tat ton. The newly discovered manuscripts provide valuable material for 
Ihli purpoxi 

3«. The variations among the manuscripts, to be sure, are not wholly 
confined to difference* of wording There are alio casts of ormwmu or 
msertmn of whole verm and paragraph. This is equally true, of count, 
of the manuscripts kept tn libraries and on the whole the eariitr witness 
or the papyri op y gives further confirmation u> what was already known 
Some of the oldest Greek manuscripts, for instance, omit the story of 
the woman taken tn adultery (John 7rU—0:11J, and those which in. 
etude it give it at different points in the narrative. For this reason the 
Revised Vernon puts the passage in brackets and gives a marginal note 
concerning it. The conclusion tlial it did not form a part of the original 
«t of this gospel ,» inescapable, and this i. further confirmed by the 
fact that the early Coptic translation, as found in several papyri like- 
™"‘* ,hi ‘ ^ideht The fourth-century Coptic manuscript found 
m IW3 and the Freer manuscript omit not only these verses but also 

"* ** Rm »■ Mreriug in this omission with 

■ Cfflici SiEUitKMil ir.il in Oti| Litin mu flnfpL Herr m*min Uie 

papyji support thr evidence of othei niiaiiwrijrts 
In this matter of the omission ot inclusion of paamgea the ending of the 
gospel of Mark presents » conspicuous problem. Many important manu. 
aenpta. including the Code* Binaltic u* and the Knailic Syria*, omit v™ 
of chapter Iff. It. place of thi. - kmger ending.’ nsUr' JZ 
aenpta have one that ia shorter, and a third ia quoted by St Jerome 
Ihe Freer manuscript gives tu bow a fourth ending. While this has 
■upenor claim to be considered *, the original conclusion of the gosnel 
rt give, further evidence of what was already practically ceruim vi*.' 
that thrlast twelve verses of Mark a* given in our English Bibles are' 
not authentic Whether the gospel origin^ ended with verses g. or 
whether it had a conclusion that Was I cut. remain! an open question. 


TEXT JlNC UNCIAL 


31* 


(I 

Sa. In this CQimKiion wt nuy untie a few instances in which irtht' 
qlngieaL evidence of another kind has been offered Tar emending: the Ohi 
Testament. Since the text of the Old Testament hay been through the 
hand* of many genera Lion* of scribes, with abundant octmsiofls fnr 
errori in copying, it fa not IWKftKUabk to suppose that ancient eh*la¬ 
ments uncovered by exravatirin might afford us the mean^ here and 
there, to cyftwt such scribal mistakes. An interesting possibility of this 
sort his been suggested by H, L, Ginsberg (JBL IASS, , In 

Dtvid'l klntnt over Saul and Jonathan occurs the passage: “ Ye moun¬ 
tains of Gilbnia. let there be no dew nor rain upon you. neither Gelds 
of offerings'* (* Sana. IiH), The expression u Gelds of offerings" is 
strange and obscure at best. Commentator? have never found a satisfy¬ 
ing explanation. Now in the Hgaritie p<em of Daii (| 17?) Ginsberg 
has pointed out a passage which curse* the land in word* like thotfe of 
David: “ Seven years may Baal fail h even eight the Rider of the Ctands: 
nor dew, nor rain, nor Upsurging of the deep, nor sweetness of the voice of 
Baal!" The Ugaritk wold rendered "deep " is related to the Hebrew 
word so translated in Genista It'S, which is sim ilar in appearance to I hr 
Word for “offering.? H in £ Samuel 1:£1. The Hebrew word for "fields 1 ' 
also looks Eifcc the L’gentle word rendered "upsurging," if huth tie 
written in Hebrew character?. Ginsberg therefore suggests that the origi¬ 
nal text of David's lament read instead of H Gelds of offerings" the 
simitar looking words " upsurging of the dce-p h ** waning as in the Ras 
Shamrab poem, the mountain Springs which were believed to be fed by 
41 the fountains of the great deep* (Genesis 7:11)- The present text 
would then be due to the error of a copyist who was misled by the 
resemblance of the wonb- One cannot say. of -course, that this is erf- 
imiti but it affords an interesting and thoroughly possible explanation 
of a difficult passage. 

Another passage in which the text can be emended 41 Lhe result of an 
archeological discovery is I Kings 10: The present Hebrew text uses 

twice a word translated in our versions " ITS droves 1,1 and 11 each drove.” 
The Sepluagint and she Vulgate take this as the name of a place With 
a alight change of the vowel-point),, which of course were no part of the 
original text, the senteuce may be read, “ And the horses which Solomon 
Kid m» brought from Egypt and from and the king a merchants 

received them from <J>uA at a prior." Hie land of Qwh is named in the 
maeriptinn of Zakar (NWAT 1S1) - It is the region of Cilicia. called Qiie 
in Assyrian documents (GHP 341, 37S, 384, 4M) . 

In one instance archeological parallels enable ui t4 choose between 




WIIA? MEaH THESE STORES? 


(in) 


lw» forms of tbr tame text, as reported in i Samuel and l Climn tries 
respectively, And even to miml a mistake in imth placri In 4 SaraucT 
7:51 I>»v.d my*. * For thy .onl'i sake and according to thv heart taut 
Ibou tlc.iL.-all this greatness." Justrad of “for thy words sake " l Chrrrni- 
<rl« 17: (a reads " Tot thy servant's nb. M Taken along wit!, Ihr follow, 
mg phase, "and according La 1 % heart,-' the rending of i Samuel seems 
preferable. But the word* translated “ according to thy heart " may 
linve been intended originally to convey quite a different meaning. The 
Ifehn-W alphabet enbairta ably of ubmiuiUi, and in ancient limn the 
vowel* were not «ptvi»d at art. Bui different vowels make different 
worcK as m our bod.’ 'bed,' 'bid,* and * bud.’ Thu, with one act of 
vow«U these Hebrew cnuuinant* mean “ according to thy heart," but 
wrth different vowel* they mean. “ % dog" The npreodoa, - thv 
servant and thy dog 1 an common in Ihe Old Testament, and we 
now have parallels in other ancient document*. Torciyncr. the editor 
, „ U f h “ h lrt,e ™ fl W- poinUout (TLL SB 0 that in the Amanra 
letter* these exprrsawin, occur frequently when a vassal humbly 
addresses his overfeed, a till the Lkchiafa Idlers show that the same 
usap- persisted down to Ihr time of the Babyhsuian Captivity. In mil 
probability, therefore, “fee thy Servant’, sake" i, comet but “tweorf* 
tb* fe thy heart - rt a mistake, and David’s prayer rami originally. 

F thir „^f. uf thj wd th&u hail dtiitr *J1 thi» 

(T^tnrsA. This «qura r... chntiflft whatever in ih* roiiBorunU of the 
l«t m given in l Chronicles IT; |». hut only in the v«w f h which went 
not indicated (n manuscript* brfera the ninth Ctttay after f'hrist 
I fie juv fmskjgKti evidencr here roHsiiU merth' of ym.n\Wh Lt> ihe 
uprcflaHiM rtLvdvied: il doe* not muftnit m ilJ M demamUtim 
A tfirtw) tmmdAlkiti pn:|>o*Hf long mgo hki been routing bv 15 
a re hr. .logical *«"*«? m the ease of the strange - k,n S J„*b - of 
Hoieo i, IS and 1 0 5 W.thout any change in the consonantal lest the 
T*"T nU ! > "^ * S ™ ft f * mt ki, 'K » of -wlrfc yurafr 

tkiftg Jarab). Jn Araynau document, “great king ” i< , .Pereotvned 
«P«MUon. A telle, from Ihe Hittile king Suppilulfem* to king Sp 
of Lgant now *«» in the Cwnoanite equivalent of the Assvrian term 
«ul it uwmta of the vi^lM, which had been conjectured a* the 
true Truim* m Eemo (JBtt JO+0. ]S|f) , 

J* ^ material affords support for , reading 

T«Um»i % L ,JSrkDl ° t nrk ™ i Vernon, „ r the n E d 

Testamnut The Hebrew teat of I Samuel 1:4* st aie* that when 

Hannah took the child Samuel to Shiloh to dedicate him to the Lon* 


I i I 5*4) 


tEST AMD LA STORAGE 


41 


service, *b* brought with her mi offering uiduding Ihtt^ bullocks." 
The next verse, however, continue*. "And they slew the bullock." Imply¬ 
ing that there was only onf. The Greek mtl Syriac, initpail nf “ Ihrer 
bullocks^ 11 read, "a three-year-okl bidtadt/' and it w i Jonj* ago 
nntJrpd I hat only n jdighl chjinge in th*- Krljft'W text mvs needed to 
secure- thi* niL-atiinit, Thai this Was the correct trading b now shown to 
be altogether probable by the oWrcalion of Prof. E. A. Sprthrr that in 
ihe ancient Near East, as the Nuii talilrta make clear, a bullpek 

was not regarded u mature, and therefor* w not acceptable for 
sacrifice, until it wan a! Ira At two yearn old I BASOR No. j*. pp, li-17). 
The reference to the agt* of Ihr bullock WuUld then-fore indicate that || 
whs fully mature and fit for sacrifice. In th« r**e archeological evidence 
dad Hot nuggest the emendation of the lext, hut jmividul an ^spln mi lion 
which is ■! the tame tifne a Cooiimatbn of the reading already attested 
by the ancient versbM- 

A supposed restoration of the original teal i% no! necessarily correct 
because archeological evidence a cited far it. Here as elsewhere it ii 
possible tn mtrinlcrpret the evidence. In otic of the Laebish Mlem. 
for example, there is a reference In a man's going down to Egypt tLetter 
I I I. lines TorcEyncr takes this to be an allusion la Ihe flight of 

the prophet Uriah. frialtd In Ihr t*i'ftty-siiLh chapter of Jeremkh, But 
Ihe Laehlsh letters come from tbi: erign of Zcdckiah, whrmLs Uriahs 
flight to Egypt is said in Jeremiah H5 tn have taken place in the 
feign of Jehoiakim, TorcHjner is therefore driven to ntjip^ thal the 
name of Jebolakine in the test of Jeremiah is a mu-lake and should be 
changed to Zeddidi. Ai a imUfr of facl K icveial writers have shown 
that TorcaynerV interpretation of hit own male rial i* erroneous, and the 
letter docs nut refer to Uriah at all. In this imtiptr, therefore* the 
attempt to correct the IrtL of the Bible by archeological v-videttcr is 
actually based oo a mtiinterpretatkin of Ihr evidence itself (see further 
§ 170 ). 

34. Occasionally archeological evidence may even COftEfttl a ending 
which commentators have supposed to be cmnitoiis. There are many 
case* ID Ihe Old Tr»t*mreU of words which omlr only once, and some¬ 
time* one inspect* that they are not real words but limply the results 
of scribal errors, like the marvelous combinations of letter* ns me limes 
made by a hurried typist. With the increasing amount of comparative 
rnaieriaU in the ancient Semitic language* { j lpJ- 0) it Ii possible that 
one of lhe« word* may turn up here and there, confirming the manu¬ 
script reading. This has Actually happened in Ihe Ras Sham rah Ulilrla 






what mea* Tirest mxw? 


(M twf 


41 

in several instances. In Psslre 8ft:4, 1 fur r tm inplr, God is called * He 
that rideth through the deserts." lb Hebrew ba'rdbik. While this 

meaning fils the context, other passage (t,g. Vrret W Ps IBi JH>; B 
Nahum 1:3) would lead an* to expect " He that rideth on the clouds/' 
Utid many scholar* have thmfbfV held that the original lest probably 
read roteh fcrtibdt In the Ris ^unrih uMrk however, AJeyan Haul 
is ftvifFi! times called riti ’rpr, which is fipkiiyrd by the Akkadian word 
tif-pafu: (ebud). This is doubtless the origin of the repression applied 
lo the God of hud in Psalm 68:4, and again the manuscript reading 
b vindicates, 

M. The examples given indicate the possibility that here and there 
archeological evidence Jn*y help us to restore an original reading which 
has been corrupted hy a scribal error at some time ip the past- Such 
cases, however, will always be tew and far between. On the whole such 
evidence as archeology has afforded thus Far, especially by providing 
additional and older manuscripts of the book* of the Bible, strengthens 
out confidence in the accuracy with which the teat has been transmitted 
through the centuries It reveals many cases of minor variations in 
wording, tuch OJ Were already abundantly evident in the later maun- 
KripU. but H «1» show* that thesr ehattgei do not aifect the main 
facts of th* history or the doctrines of th# Christian faith. As a matter 
&r fact, archeological discoveries have not mati-rally aEtered the teat 
of the Bible. They have confirmed, to bo sure, what the manuscripts 
already known made vUffieicitUy dear, that the exact words of the 
authors were dot handed down frotti generation to generation without 
many error* and alterations LEI detail, but they have also shown that not 
only the main substance of what Laa been written but evm the words, 
aside from minor variations, have been transmitted with remarkable 
fidelity, so that there need be no doubt whatever regarding the teach¬ 
ing conveyed by them- Regarding what Amos* Isaiah, i«sy p or Paul 
thought and taught, our knowledge is neither increased nor altered 
by any of the manuscripts discovered. 

34, Much greater and more significant is the Contribution of anrhe- 
cilihgy when wc come to questions of interpretation. Given the he*t 
reconstruction of the text which the manuscripts enable us to establish, 
we have still to determine lit meaning. This requited first of all that 
wc understand the language. Here a wealth of important material of 
in aitheoEogical-iiterary nature is now available, both for the Hebrew 

|L >W S k Ihr Hthwrm. ‘Van 34 i* ti* Flriir-- * f« 11 m th* \Ubrrr 


(■« 


TKXT aSEj lArruujiUE 


4d 


ind Anm*ae cf the (Wd Trttimcnt And for [he Gr«k of tie Xeu 
TMtifflefll- Tie reUlive paucity of written materials in Falestinr is 
niore than balanced by k wealth of document which come from other 
lands but shec1 much light pn the grammar and vocabulary of the 
biblical liniriiips. 

The only ancient Hebrew literature we have if I hat preserved in |br 
Bible itself. Hie total amount of this k so small that many Tunis and 
idiom* which may bfcve been familiar to the people or Israel occur only 
one* or twice In the Bible and therefor* pu*rl* the I laudator ami com¬ 
mentator Often the meaning of a wold ears be determined only through 
its occurrence in some other Semitic language. Arabic and Syriac, with 
their extensive literature*. are very useful at thi* point. The later and 
Voluminous Jewish literature in Hebrew and Aramaic has preserved 
many words and expressions whose meaning might otherwise have been 
fujrgu.lt rn. Even an there wu much that remained nhscurr until I he 
vast quantity of Babylonian and Assyrian tablet* buried in HcSojtfi- 
tamta earn* 1 Ip light. Several distinct dialect* of what a now fcruswn u 
the Akkadian Language are used in these tablets. Aa the late Prof. 
Fdwird Cbicra hat raid, the Asayrotoguta had to use Hebrew at first 
tu explain the Akkadian language, but now the kller ift Si well knoutt 
that it H Used to explain the Hebrew (CWG +9)- Of course this ia a 
highly technical study, requiring sound and thorough philological train¬ 
ing. Not every Hebrew etymology which has been proposed on the bask 
of the Akkadian language may be accepted. The eomparative study of 
the Semitic languages is now, however, progressing very rapidly and 
becoming scientific in the beat ueirtc of the term. Our knowledge not 
only cd the meaning of word* but *ko of the grammatical structure 
of the Hebrew language and |U historical development has thus been 
placed on a new and loUd foundation. 

Comparison wiLh the Babylonian atid Assyrian source* shows that 
some words in the Hebrew Old Testament were not native Hebrew 
words but were taken over from Akkadian. This was naturally Inir 
particularly of official titles, just aa the Latin titles of Roman officials 
Were in later time* taken over into Greek and Other language* of lire 
tfnpire. Thus in ft Kings 18:17 three officers of the Assyrian emperor 
Sennacherib are railed Tartan. Rabraria. and Rabshnkch. The cuneiform 
lourm show that these mere sot proper namrl but Assyrian military 
title*. Tartan is the AnyHan faHtfnu. tirttw* (field marshal, second-in- 
command) . Rabahakeh. the principle rfpresent*live of the emperor and 
the only one mentioned in the paraUcl passage (Isaiah 3$;!), k the 


it 


WILAT MAM THESIS- iSTOME*? 


(It H~71 


nfi-id^u. H ch Iff <ifficrr." Rnii!>am. which occur* also In icfvmkh 39: S + 
13. is the Aiiymn title mhii-id-rfli, meaning “ ehwf ctijnirh," Another 
Auyriin title* RjLhni&if, Appnn il» in Irremuh S:3 r 13. This ts Ihr 
Assyrian rab-atifpi, thr meaning oF which ii uncertain. The “ marshal H 
(Hebrew fjjiitfr) of irrrminh 51:47 and Kb hum S:iT h the A^yrinn 
fH jpurnjrrv. Fl tcribc-^ 

Such titles as thcK were probably always pc^nnifij u fnn-ign, but 
other Akkadian lenni bwimf so thoroughly a! home in Hd>ppw that 
their forrijcn, origin w#s tkdbtbi forgotten. Such in all probability were 
the name* of units nf vilur. the 1 sheM ‘ AkMb ritjfv) *n4 

1 manrh' (Akkadian mdhu) J m>l of units of length. the 'cubit" 

fommaft, Akkadian am mof?j f , and the “ reed 4 (gdnrh, Akkadian. (jupiti). 
Many other worth n.lso were taken over from the Bahybnk.ni and 
Assyria iU* and their UM 1 in Ihe cuneiform source* makes plain their 
oripfiB and meaning. Therr wr al*o words ind idiom* which both Xh* 
llehnew and the Akkadian inherited from Lti•- ^ahbo-SonLitic language i>uL 
of which they both pee, and for these too the Babylonian and Assyrian 
Leila sometime* reveal Ihr meaning when it is no! cirar in I he Hebrew. 
For I he value of Akkadian in other rwptcU m an aid lo I he under- 
standing of Hebrew the reader must be rrfrrwJ to technical wafka 
on the comparative and historical grammar o! the Semitic lin^ua^n. 

37. Among the day tablet* are some which provide material that 
comes even closrr home than the Akkadian language. The Amaru* 
tablets (§11 A) an written in Akkadian. but they show (ha influence 
of the Canaanitc tongue which was the native language of their writers. 
Canaan itc words and idioms occur occuniofmEEy* and sometimes an 
Akkadian word is followed by the equivalent CuanmUe word, inserted 
to make the meaning He*? and marked by a special sign as a ‘glows' 
(i, f, explainlory addition). Since Hebrew is more closely related to 
CafiOnnit* than Id any other language, these Carinanite elements Lel the 
Acmjm letters throw tight on the early uttfo of the Hebrew language 
itself. They are rtp«i*% important because the syEkhkv cuneiform 
script Indicates vowels as well as eonsomintj H whereas only the latter 
arc given in alphabetic inscription* In other Akkadian sources also 
wmc Cunaanik' material is preserved, eipwiilly in ¥p’cst Semitic proper 
IgltiH, which are often short sentences m thrnwbri, like many of the 
Hehpew names in the Bible. 

y Fmf riJLdf my lUnilim to Ih* ftet tbiE th* term i* u- miSuirt dT eamsHU 

Mmiuiia rram &MwriiHi »Had. *ad t**t Hi lflBucn» <H#fub lb* Nnr F.ut 

ifiLo Ik kcdi et tfav rW«J *wlt mit±. 


CM 57-ftJ 


TEXT ASD MSfltLltiE 


45 


LluSflv related to Hebrew and CftlMAmte j-i UgnriLii:, the language- 
M ™ 10 Utu^«*| (merns amt ® I her texU of Rit* Shnmmh 

{gllS), 1 Just *ibcrr it Mon** in the family-tree of the Semitic lan 
w yet certain., but it i* Certainly A member of the samr group 
“ ^ {L,)ri ‘ n n * u - Canaanitr." Iti vocabulary iflci groin mar, therefore, are 
“ f f™. 1 f&f I he inhere La tion c f bibliml Hebrew, A great 

deaJ of work sldl rrnuim to be done on these tnb hrfoer their full 
mennm^ and s i gi.iirncn D be determined. Thu* far the Bible explain* 
lh ™ fairnMsre thjm Iht-y explain the Bible, In fact I he obvious] v D Jose 
reULioiiihip between the lira languages has too often c au W the inter- 
pn-ti.-^ to assume Shut n word nbuil mean in fgaritie wb*l it b known 
or supposed It, mean in Heblrw. A detailed And pa i making jtudy mu it 
be nude of each Ugaritic word in its roalf-Kt, using for its elucidation 
“ l onl >' Htfc rew ■»« *bo Akkadian. Arabic. And other Semitic languages, 
w tlli oraisionnl resort la other tongue? also. e. g. Egyptian, This hihori 
OUi u still far from compel ton. 1'ntfl its result* are well established 
and accepted by Srmituli, ic ttttmary in applying any pro¬ 

posed! mIrrpretalHn of the F In* Sha ninth tablets |* I he prohlrtns of 
tnhlarAl study With due mu linn AJid critical judgment , however, h e 
niAy already find much lhal b certain nmf very ilium mating, 

* ln “Murticra with the text of the OitJ Testament mt have 
Already noted that the Rat Sham rah ti-xU contain words which 

oeeitr only once in I he Bibb ami have therefore incurred the suspicion 
of having been produced by scribal mistakes Other word* also which 
appear only rarely in the OEd T«Uternt are found in the L.bfeta One 
■>f these is lh* word rendered ' moved " by the Aulhururd Versbu and 
the American Standard Version and "was brooding over H by the 
EogEiah Revised Version tn Gfftttk I:i. ,J And the spirit of God moved 
upon the face of the waters.” The Hebrew word is m*mArp*l , from the 
™t rAp. which occur* elsewhere mlv in Drulemnomy 33:11 md Jere- 
minh 43'0. Translator* and com men l* tors have been much perplexed 
by this word. ll has now turned up in the Dn'it poem ffom Ras Shamrab 
lit), wh-ere it is used several times of a bird s Hying or soaring it v t l 
a pkec. 

Owing io the fart lhat the alphabet of Eft* Shamrah represents a 
much earlier stage hi I hr development of West Semitic writing than 
dm the forte of the Hebrew alphabet used in the tHd Testament it is 


L Tie j.l^nrtur* □* tl* JUi Sfi.mr^ 4*tu* mi. u vtwy nl„,j W u.H nfr&j rnwuw^r 
w-. t K-A. ^li-rftrr. Tk* gb i^ iFH Twxl* of R^ £A»n-L>nt 11 y rj -. 

^ W *| hutwrr. A. tMijf, JLfilHfv xrii {ID-||). |*T fl 


what mtaN These KTDJTKft ? 


(I* 


« 

P° s “ bl f » w*™ cists la enlarge mar umb-^landing of the derivation 
und ordinal meaning of word*. Certain pair* of nmomnu, originally 
dislmrt and still m in the LTgarplic script, have omaae Ip be represented in 
frehnrw by a single sign. The result ia thnt sometimes we cannot be sure 
whkh of Ih e Iw* sounds represented by a certain letter belonged to the 
original root of tfer 'ord. An MCfrltml i* afforded by the word 

used tu designate I hr dowry given by a father La his daughter when 
she wa* married. The Hebrew wold ts jr'jVuJr.m. Tliia baa naturally been 
assigned to the loot fi$ P “ to send,* and hence i| ha* been supposed Hint 
She bn hie meaning of the word wu * parting gift, when tfit* girl was 

M-nl imiy from hr* father's home. Now in I’gnritir, u w*s first 
pointed out by C. U Gordon (BASOK No. « T p. -U>>. the rot £tA h 
Used as in Hebrew, hut the Same of t hi- dowry is spelled flj. In Hebrew 
m mad i have Coalesced, rts have also A and in Ugarilic they m rtill 
dUtinct. The ryot-meaning of fffr is slill unknown, so that the net result 
of this discovery is negative, but even -iy it corrects 4 false etymology 
whwh had been Universally accepted. 

m In rare instances Hebrew words jut explained by evidence from 
*rill other Languages. Since the Hebrew* had many contacts with 
Rgypt at varium times, it is natural that loltiO Egyptian words should 
have been taken over into Hebrew. This would happen mi only when 
Lha Israeliin were livfatf u Egypt, from the time of Mos«* but also in 
sueb a period at ihr reign of 5olmtion H when thrrr was much trade 
with Egypt and dose diplomatic relations. Many Egyptian words tnay 
have been adopted by the Camuniln in limes of Egyptian dominaten H 
and later laketi over by the Hebrews from the Canaatthra, A possible 
example of Ibis is the- word used in Otnttrt 14=14 For Abraham's 
retainers, hanikim As Albright has pointed out (AAF HI). thb appears 
m the Form ftwlfd in one of thf- cuneiform tablets of Taanqeh, written 
about fifteen hundred years before Christ, but non; than five hundred 
years before that time the word and its cognates were used in Egyptian 
document* for the retainers of Palestinian chiefs, Albright holds there¬ 
fore that tEe word is Egyptian. 

The extent of Egyptian influence on the Hebrew language has been 
exaggerated, Elaborate studies of the Egyptian elements in the Old 
Testament have hern made, snd fur teaching conclusions have been 
drawn from them. Not all of these will *land the test of expert criticism, 
ycl the importance of I hi* line of investigation must be recflgiu*ecL 
Egyptian names appear occasionally at appropriate points in the Old 
Testament. It is not surprising to find Joseph S mailer, wife, and father- 


TIS? ASJi UlXGUaGk 


47 


el m 

ifl'law bearing Egyptian names .More significant ii the fad that per- 
names of Egyptian origin. Jnetnding the name Moses, appear 
amoti# the Israelites themselves, but only in the tribe of Levi, From 

M fact, antonj! othert. Prof, t. J. M«dt has concluded that only the 

" f iTa^? 1 d0mn *»■!■» “* *«»"« Wbkct to the Egyptians 
1.1 HO $ti AJSLisap. p. Ilfti- Thai so much tan safely be forerred 
may we]I be doubted, but some particularly dose relationship Li m - 
la Fn ly HEkhra t nl. 

The importance of Arabic for Hebrew studies h« already been men. 
imned, While most of the materia] here is found in tilerarv sources 
there t, some arahrofogicnl-lilerary material in the form of inscriptions 

“.^V n ™ , ;V SOUtl1 AmbJt ' «*"“ cutitempotnrv 

with the Old Testament. As we shall see [atcr. the contents of these 
in^riplmns fi ,ve assistance at many feints in the understanding of the 
Old Testament; for our knowledge nf Hebrew grammar ami sorahtt- 
Jars, wjlh which we are concerned at present, the language itwtf is 
important also Montgomery (MAB HU h) points out, for instance 

. m U|E Then'llician inscription of Kaiamu t&th cent. B.C ) 

“ in the much later Safa] tie inscriptions nf north mi Arabia, the wont 
apr (Hebrew liner, ‘book 1 ) mean* 1 inscription. 1 He suggests there¬ 
fore that in Lxoilus 17:1* the reference to Moses 1 writing in a 1 Ijook 1 
may mean that he rut an iii.wript tun, and in Job lft.it the 1 hook 1 in 
whtch Job wishes Jus Words were written may well mean an inscription 
(«p. verse i+, "graven in the fork Hoth the Hebrew ,„H the South 
Arabic terms, however, may go hack to Akkadian Jfjim (me^eej, 

ihflJU^h Cmi) lrn u lahiiiiiiuTi. 

Slat another language which contributed a few words t» Hebrew 
Was Persian, since the coni nets between Jews and Penis its were rcls- 
tivdy late, and the Pen.hu, language Had no aueh fa milv-reia lion ship 
wtlh Hebrew as did Akkadian ami Csmmnite. sr should not cipecl to 
find evidence of Persian influence on the grammatical structure of the 
Hebrew language. That a few Persian words heje and there should 
be taken over is natural, however, in view of the fact that for morr 
than two hundred yean Palestine was a part of the Persian empire 
<>ur word Paradise,' ns is generally known, comes tn ui through the 
Hebrew and Greek from the Persian language There are many other 
1 rrsun words in the Old Testament, especially in Eiu, and Daniel 
The late Hebrew books of Esther and Bcelesiasles nod the Aramaic 
f»rt5 of I hr books of Eira and Daniel use the wool (deemi 

command, word, matter). The derivation of this word has been much 


WHAT MEL! > THE® 


Ill 


49 


disputed Some sehulara Km* supposed I hat d was oF Gwk origin 
^rprfjasrrcffly , hut iiucxiplioft* show that it wjaa tin Old Fenian word ll 
has now appeared in a group of Prrtkn documents written on leather, 
contain in* messagr* From Uw Ftriku viceroy Arsaiuej in Babylonia 
lo hil officials an Egypt about m B C- Another expression also used 
in the Anmak part of Ear*, hi fm <comma cider) t b UluniMUd by 
thi’Sf: documents. 1 

[]i spile or ail such a hi from archroln|tica]-bteruTy matemk tbnr 
remain wolds whose meaning it UfifcJlnWfi or uncertain. Some object* 
mentioltnl in the Old Testament ire l«d to identify. The most perfect 
coutnbvtkn which archeology could possibly make in web ■ 
b* N> uncover -n eiawplr of the object ih question dearly Labelled ai 
wch. Thi^ ftwy seem alUigclher too muck to expect. yet one instance 
*f it bail actually oocuem! Several OU Teslam^t t^sa^es rrFer lo 
object* used ha the Cannanite worship which Ihr Israelites an? Urged to 
ihufl. These objects arc called kurnmAniir*. but whal this word means 
«n* unknown until recently. The translators, simply making the best 
penesa they could, rendered it " image* " OF “ sun image*/' At Palmyra, 
however, ihcfc ba* bwA found nri allar uf incense with ibis word carved 
on it. Sins* similar altars have ltf*n found in Palestinian excavations 
it is practically certain that the €anaanitc hammAnim were such allara 
oF Incenic ISA and fig, +P>- 

4(1. Further instance* uF Ihr- clarification of obscure won h and phrases 
by archeological divert** will appear when wr come io diteuw the 
explanation of particular passage Before living lb- object 

of language we may note here what inscription indicate regarding the 
laaguige of the Old Testament, Albright coiuidcra the language oF 
the Mari tablets " virtually identical " with that spoken by the Hebrew 
patriarchs (A$AC 11*) Phoenician document* from a twelfth-cenluTy 
letter recently disco vend at ByWw down to Ih* Inscriptions -of the 
Greek period, show that Phoenician and Biblical Hebrew wen- more 
nearly the some IB I hr time of the Judge" than they were in lalCT limes 
(BASOH No. Tit. p. H), The Sileuim inscription nt Jerusalem (&£4}< 
the ostraca found at Samaria (g BO), and now the Lacfailh letters (g M). 
rnah]e us to drlcrminr fcfflve oF the characteristic* of the dialects oF 
different part* of Palestine and the development oF Ihr language in 
successive period* Scholars havy long that there are differ- 


__J by Hrii-oHi lh L Vimrhmtih, JMdftafrii a«» 3 - PP J 

dm R wi LhiL D* ^uiilurrir fwrimf, pp 37 f 1 i-m ludicbt^l P«rf. ^ F- 
Albright faf lliii InftiWlhai. 


<!«3 


tBIT A.VO- LArfeHAOtt 


4H 


***** in vocabulary. morphology, iyitLpt* And style bet '.vrrn different 
boolfA of the Old Testament. And tkl these rffiwl cbn(jfn in the 
^ w <®S r fvntn cmt century to another. Tk inscriptions give us Ah 
objective standi! nJ of cumpsituni fi>r tiiiliinis^ *tid judging these 
differences. 

Thus it Appears (hit Iht classical Hebrew prose of the Old Testament 
reitecta the diilccl of Jerusalem as spoken in I hr tenth and ninth trn- 
tunes before Christ. The Judean inscriptions of the best two or thrw 
centuries exhibit this form of the language with some latar develop¬ 
ments in syntax, probably exemplifying the colloquial fountcrpn rt of 
the literary language uacd in the Old Testament. From thi* vLimtanl 
the alyle of the viriout biblical writers diverged idrmisinffty as lime 
went on, assuming more and mote the character of an Artificial literary 
hnjpisje. Th e characteristic prose of lh«- Author -nil K li-t id Chronicles. 
Ezra, and NrhrminJj shows t he result reached by this process in the late 
fifth wd fllHy fourth centuries. 

?Jot only the development of the Heljiew langurtg? within itself may 
be tten in the cpigraphsc- remains, hut also the influence of Aramaic 
upon it and the transition from Hebrew to Aramaic as the spoken bn- 
IpjARe nf the Jews in the post exilic age. Oft stamped jar bundle* of 
the fourth century H.C™ fnr <~*afnpK the A ruinate fr*rtn of the alphabet 
apjtfirn in place of the old Hebrew Characters which hud been Used in 
prattling centuries. During this period A ram 31 ic wan supplanting I he vari¬ 
ous native tongue* and becoming the general la nonage of government, 
commerce, and culture throughout western Asia. By the lime of Christ 
it bad become the mplhcr-Umgut of the Jews in Pauline, 

Thctc are practically no Literary Sources for the exact form of the 
knguage Used by Jesus and his follower*. Many inscriptions of the 
first century A D. in the dialects of the Palmytehes and the Naba¬ 
taeans arr known, but While these forms of Aramaic llr closely related 
(o the language of Jt»l r they art* not quite the same. Th^rc is one 
important first-century inscription In Jewish Aramaic. however (R^SOR 
No. 44, pp. S-IO). Ref erring to King fjtjetah of Judah, who had livrd 
And died about seven hundred years earlier, it say* that his bones hjid 
been muved to the ptacr where it Was set up (see frontispiece). Where 
that was we have now. unfortunately, no fn«wn» of telling. The inscrip¬ 
tion was found in 1D31 m the Russian museum on the Mount nf Olives, 
with nothing to show whence it came. For more important is the time 
when i t wa* made, which u iihpwti, though only approximately, by I hr 
forms of the letters. Coming from the first century, this mamptaou ts 


what %ir_vN these oro***? 


Hi 4*41) 


vcfy important for determining the type nf Aramaic uawl in Palestine 
in tbe time of Christ, White only minor grarnnuittcail details are 
lilTCiJvtd, anything bearing on ihc language ip. which the gospel waa 
First pttjcIhlulmI b of inlrrr*t tfp Lbe Bible student and may prove 
important for the trdrrpnfUlknP of Jem’ aayings. Incidentally the in- 
script inn proves that the Jews at this time wc to accustomed lo writing: 
In Aramaic, a fact which, has some bearing on the origins of our goi^i 

41 For the language of the New Testament archeology provide* a 
great deal of material, the importance of which raft hardly Ifc rxagger- 
ated, The u« of many words is illuslmlr-d by Grrvk InsaopliPHSr For 
ctamplc, Paul'*. language regarding the ChHltuin as God* or Christ's 
d-uve i Etonian 1 i; «:«; 1 CoriHthiuftfi 7:$i; and elsewhere), nr Christ's 
frmhiiqn (i GnrmLhlaft* 7:t®) P bought with n price (1 Corinthians 
$J$0: 7^3) and rvdtrmrd from the curse of the law (Galatians 3:13; 
4:A), would sound very familiar and vivid to Greeks acquainted with 
the redemption of slaves at Delphi, where, as inscriptions tell us h iliv» 
were bought from their masters in the name of Apollo and regarded 
then os his slaves. Another fact of interest Lo the student of the New 
Testament is that such divine litle-s as Lord, Savior. Son of God, and 
even God are applied by inscriptions nrnfc coins to the Greek king* of 
Egypt and Syria and the Roman emperura. 

The chief material of this Sort, however, in found in I he papyri.* 
Regarding papyrus texts of parts of the New Testament itself we have 
already spoken and shaLE have more to say later. Here we are con¬ 
cerned with papyrus documents of other kinds which exhibit the com- 
mnn Greek dialer I of Xrw Testament limes. These include letter^ 
contracts, accounts, receipts, magical charms, and other deposit* of 
everyday life in the kingdom of the Plolomirs and the Roman empire. 
For nearly a hundred yemm Old Tcutalftpllt scholars hav* been using 
papyri of the third and KCfflld Centuries P C- lo ibu*|r*!c and explain 
the Greek of the Scpluagim. but it wu not until almost tbr end of 
the nineteenth Century lhal tin- value ixf the papyri for explaining the 
Language of Ihc New T?*t&m' , nt wo* discovered by Adolf Deissmann. 
Since then She grammar ftf New Testament Greek has bem virtually 
rewritten. The many different** between New- Testament Greek and 
the language had not Heaped notice, but their true explann> 

lion hid not been seen. Much had been written about ' Hebraisms-' 

* TI’m- HAihi-pI wwk i4| Ibift lubkcl ii A. L^kuirurui, Ugil frtrm 1-1#- Amim! Eurt. I'w 
ft pofMdftj vu-miuuy of kb# Faria arr 3. L. Cftiprr. Arfiwrtfowv 4*f f ^ r ri4ria*ft*t 
tlWtij. 


tl * 1 ) 


TEXT 1KD LA.NDUAGE 


51 


Some scholars even thought Hint the Nfw Teslimfii! wii in a 

peculiar linguiijtr especially crcalrd to bt Ik v^hwlr of rav elution, 
What the papyri have shown b that tk Greek &F Ik New Testament 
was essentially the koine or common dialect of the Roman empire. 

Not that all uf tk peculiarities pf New Testament Greek can be thus 
explained- There ii a good dual of Semitic flavor in Ihc New Testament 
which b due to Ihc familiarity of the wrilen with Ik ScptUagint 
and its Iitcrnl renderings of Hebrew idioms. There are also, particularly 
in the gospels, many phenomena which must he attributed to the direct 
influence of the Animak language spoken by Jeans and his first disciple*, 
either kc«u^ the evangelists were Jewish Christiana imperfectly 
acquainted with Greek and still accustomed to thinking in their native 
Aramaic, or. mo re probably, because the saying* of JdUS and at least 
some of the stories about him had been written jimt in Aramaic and 
translated rather literally into Greek- The papyri, however, have 
greaily reduced the number of peculiarities in New Testament Greek 
that can be regarded Mi due to Semitic influence, and they have provided 
a greatly Heeded objective basis for determining just what phenomena 
may and what may not he considered kmtliilbl. 

Most important of all, I hey show that the writers of the Greek New 
TcstUKmt used neither a Special and artificial language nor the language 
of literature, which was still endeavoring, without too much nicer**, 
to imitata the style of the classical period- The authors of the New 
Testament wriple an the venUtftllar. the Language known and used by 
common people wherever Greek dvilkatbn had penetrated. In a Very 
true sense, therefore, while New Testament Greek was not Created «pe- 
dally for the revrlfetlun of the gospel, we may say that it had been 
providentially spread abroad, so that the Christian message could, he 
widely read and understood, This fact undoubtedly helps to explain 
the rapid spread of the gospel. 

Not that the language of the New Testament was that of uneducated 
people. To translate the gospels and epistles into slang, or into the 
jargon of fl sports reporter, would not accurately represent their Lftlc 
character. As WelShauseh said, spoken Greek became liter*lure in the 
New Testament. A few of the books of the New Testament, especially 
Luke and Acta and the Epistle to the Hebrews, approach the elegance 
of classical Greek prose. Even FkuTi letter*, while direct and informal, 
arc clearly the work of an edutaW man. The fact remains, however, 
that the language of the New Testament as a whole la that of everyday 
lift, not that of formal literary compotllion. 


6301 


WHAT ULAX THESE 


(It 41 , 5 ) 


fii 

Not only the grncf*l charertrr of the language b mide clear by the 
pipy ft, but ftha lilt- omnotiLtloii md a^M-ialidTU of many words and 
exprettioa* used in the Ntw Testament. Many words previously known 
in tbr New Testament have tie* appeared in Lhe papyri, Other*, while 
found in cIassicaI liierattirr. receive new meanin g from the connections 
La which they hit used m the papyri- Thus terms y wd by Faut with 
regard to the ItAfwIbmL mi* found to have been taken from the legal 
terminology of the lime. The word commonly employed in the New 
Testament for the future coming of Chriit. jwTOtiriu, h found h the 
papyri in connection with efforts to prepare for an expected visit of ihr 
king- Titles of church offu bh. *wh mi bishop, presbyter, and deacon, 
appear in connection with trade* unions and other organization*, iittclud- 
tnjc irlipoiis and civil bodies. When we read that those who seek the 
pnisc of men H haw their reward " {Matthew fir 3. $, 1®) h new vividness 
is given to the saying by the fact Lhnt lh-J verb here employed is com* 
mohly U«d Ifl the papyri in the Fl in full." 

43. A gwl d») of breath and ifik, not to mention hard feelings, 
might have been spared if they: fact* had beep known a few centuries 
earlier. to debate between theologians of various Christian denomina¬ 
tions much emphasis has been placed in the put on the etymology of 
Greek words and their lira by the classical authors. Wr are l»w in a 
position to realize that this was Largely irrelevant. For the interpret*- 
lion of the New Testament what U decisive is not the derivation of * 
wotd of Sts meaning in the fifth centuiy B. but what it meant to the 
people of the Roman empire m the first century A, D. For this on r best 
evidence 13 JP v rn by the papyri- Not infrequently they show that the 
fine distinctions of classical Greek had hmn loaL » that inferences 
based on imaLi points of grammar and vocabulary are unjustified. 

Another mult of comparing New Testament Greek with the language 
of the papyri it an increase of confidence in the accurate tnnjiui^iOB 
of the text of the New TertUKEl itself. With very few exception?, the 
Language of the New T*’*lament manuscripts is not that of the Later 
centuries in which they w*re copied but that of the time when the books 
were composed, It is clear that the copytiU did not attempt to ' modera¬ 
te' the sacred teat in order to make St intelligible and attractive to 
the people of their own day. The few unimportant changes of this sort 
which were actually made were doubtless unintentio&tt- 

43, Some of the evidence we have noted regarding the Eaiigtiagef of 
the Bible is useful in *UU another way. It helps tu to determine when 


fl HJ 


TEXT AMP LAKGIMU* 


53 

I he individual books were written. This is true particularly for the Old 
THUincflt, Thr iigmfieanrc of iiueriptioDi far the dcvcfcpnjfnt of tht 
Anitiair, ud Gr»k Lm^h bis ilmd^ becti in i-n tinued 
Thu development was taking place while Ihe of th« Bible wwc 

being wnttcQ, so that tie lnijfuj^e rmpb^Ml ift A book affords a criterion 
of I ho dale of its compositing. Jllil M any person who knew the history 
of Lhe English language couM left at once dial the fiEtwdl iddfHfl 
of George Washington was considerably earlier Lhati Ihe ij^hn of 
FrankLiP. EX ttooHvvlt, our new knowledge of Ihr historical grammar 

of firbrtw fiublci us to sec that the message* of Isaiah are several 
ccoltjries older than the diary nf Ncbemiah. The value of such all 
objective criterion of date can hardy be disputed:. The ex ten t of its 
applicability depends merely upon the amount of cvidtDa al our dis¬ 
posal, and this- t* con*lan% increasing. 

The pmence of Egyptian element* in Ihe language of the Old T«1 a- 
ajcpl, which we have already holed, has b**a adduced, together with 
the references to Egyptian life in the atnries nf Joseph and Mohs, to 
prove that Ihe PentalrUcb must have been written in the lime of Mosei, 
and therefore presumably by Moses himself aa tradition hil long main¬ 
tained. The picture of Egyptian Life reflected in lhr*e portion* of the 
Old Testament corresponds in general to what w? learn from Egyptian 
archeology, but as we have already Keen this may be due In later writers' 
familiarity with Egyptian customs. Aj a matter of fact the Egyptian 
names given in the Joseph story do not appear in Rgypl before the 
time of the Hebrew monarchy {AAF 143J. They may well have been 
learned by the Israelite-i during thfc lime of dose contact wilh Egypt 
in the reign of Solomon, or later, which would indicate that they did 
Dot originally belong ho the story of JoHph hut *rft addled by a later 
narrator, and therefore that the story did not attain its present form 
until long after Moses 11 time. This example shows clearly that caution 
and thorough knowledge are essential in attempting lo Use archeological 
evidence for the dating of books of the Bible. Such UAe should Gut be 
discouraged for that reason; what should be discouraged !l hasty and 
mjtldieioU-s reiunice upon theories supported by evidence nf any kind 
m lhe hands of incompetent writers. 

In the New Testament u wrll ai the OW Teslatnetit, though wglhin 
much narrower limits, bialnriail grammar baaed on areheobglesJ evi¬ 
dence affords a criterion for dating th* composition of the books- Even 
m much later manuscripts, as we have seen, the type of Greek repre¬ 
sented by the New Testament is that of the first century. Unless wc 


VfiMAt MPAS 




14 

ir*ott lo |be wholly improbable hypothesis of a ddibe role and rvmark- 
ibiy mcmsful uif of aichak La i.ij{ LifiL^ c, iL is evident Iheirfoie 1 that the 
books of the New Testament were written in the fiffl Wfltujy. Of 
qm it h understood that this is only a grneml limit: the year 101 
A. D. waj not the exact 4ato of a sudden and marked change in the 
character of the Greek Language. For dating within closer limits, such 
as decades or tven ^neifltbiu, the criteria of historical grammar are 
not applicable- 

44. One papyrus affords more direct evidence than that of historical 
grammar for the early date of one of the gospels, and that tho very one 
which all luthorHiei agree u the latest of I hr four. Many scholars 
hast boon inclined to date the GoSfn-1 of John in the second century* 
but in IBM a fragment of papyrus was published containing on one 
rid* venes 31-33 and on the other verses 37-Sfi uf John IB. 1 The papyrus 
copy itself comes from the e#riy second century: the original gospel, 
therefore, can hardly have been composed later than the end of the firs! 
century. 

The same inference is probably, though not quite *0 certainly, to be 
drawn from another papyrus published in the «me year as the one 
just mentioned. This too, it is claimed, is a second century manuscript 
containing gospel material: It does not agree with any of the canonical 
gospels, but U id elosdy related to the Gospel of John that its editors 
Were indicted to regard it as part of a document used by the evangelist 
in composing hb gospel. 1 Further study has shown that more probably 
it is from a very early “ harmony/* combining the Gospel of Joh n with 
material from Other gospcli, in part apocryphal, U this be so, w f have 
here further evidence that the Gospel of John was already ill existence 
in the early second century, 

4J. To take us back beyond the actual writing of the hooks of the 
Bible and provide information concerning the methods of composition 
or the use of still earlier sources may seem altogether Loo much to expect 
of archeology. In such matters we arc ltd! for the most part dependent 
upon internal evidence in the books themselves. An interesting example 
of what is possible in this direction has been found, however, in the 
ease of the book of Enoch, an Important Jewish Work of the period 
between the Old and New Testaments, On internal evidence it has 

'£ 14 hchfTti (taUi dft U*p mU"l*f Frafmj-ni *f {U f*wtl flioprf m fib /rii 
LA*mr* 4ia»> 

■H I. Bril Wid T. C, Oh*. F«(m»o ltJ rn ^ G^tpd IIP&l. 


{Htt4j text AWP LaHUUAtiX: 55 

W 4 at^uni that the Aim! chapter of the Eth tapir vmtau (chapter 108) 
was a lit t addition, ap4 Ihit ehiptcf IDS was an iuberpnlaEinn m 
original look. Among the Beatty btbti^ripti (§S) there is one indud- 
chapter* 07-Iff? of Enoch in Greek. omitting chapter* HI5 mad IPS 
and so eonfimiihg the hypolKnii that the book once circulated without 
these additions A somewhat similar phenomenon is presented by the 
variations among manuscripts with regard tc the ending of the Gospel 
of Mark, M already noted (§ 32). M any of the- hooks of the DM Testa¬ 
ment. it ls generally ■jrwJ, put together by cambiniitg writings 

originally separate. For example, critical analysis of the book of Ezekiel 
hai wBtinrtd a number of scholar! that chapters 44-Ut weir not written 
by the author of the earlier part of the book* and that chapters 
also were of separate origin. Ow rnmnusefipt uf tbe Scptungint. the 
Codex Wiceburgcnsis, puts chapters 38-80 between chapter? 35 and :UJ 
The ScJnrkfe papyri of Erekid. recrnUy published by Prince I on Univer¬ 
sity, put them after chapter 3|. These facts indiratc that chapter* 
14? and 40-48 must have been circulated at some tLim- Lei 
roll*. Chapters 38*39, a brief separate composition, must have been 
added to the first roll, but different ioribe* itiu-rted them mi different 
pLacn. AH thiBi, to be sure, proves nothing regarding the original author¬ 
ship or plan of the book. The division into separate Hills, um| the Conse¬ 
quent shifting of chapter* 38'Sff may have occurred only in the (jm k 
translation. The Hebrew text of the Old Testament and the Septuagint 
often differ in the arrangement of chapter* and even the umim or 
inclusion Of fliriy cfllcftsive pawageX, Combined with the internal 
evidence, however, the variation* Letwrrtt the Greek manuscripts 
strengthen the case for a separate origin of Ezekiel SE-SO, if nol nlvi of 
HI-4b. More than that can, hardly be claimed, and it should lie recog- 
nited that tbs: forte of the internal rvidtMt ilvlf b a matter of con¬ 
siderable difference of opinion. On the whole it cannot be said that tho 
papyri have u yet helped materially Ko trace the processes by which 
the books of the Bible were written or Compiled. 

46, Still less Can be learned from archeology regarding the origin and 
lz*aimkMion of the content* of the Bible Wore they were written down 
at all. It has been claimed, to be sure, that the Siruiitic inscriptions and 
other* in the same script (§ IIP), proving I hr cariy origin of the alpha¬ 
bet, conclusively rule out all thought of a prriod of oral tradition before 
the fint records *>f Israel wore put into a riling, ll is quite true that the 
assumption of such oral tradition is no longer necessary on the ground 
that the [uaelitn could not have known how to write. We how know 


W WI1AT THEKC BTOtn ? ((«} 

(bill the VfF first liiirlitu ou-uld hive had written msnb. It doo 
I Kit nece*wrt!y follow, however, that they actually had (hem, Thai the 
CAUUiiil£fl. settled in fortified eiLieit had bug been acquainted with the 
art nf writing is ctenr. That (he Israeli tc* alw. living It serm-womatlie 
life in the wilderness, knew and employed the art, while not Impossible, 
is by no means Certain. Even if we could prove that (hey actually kept 
written records in the time of Uho, these would not necessarily be 
idatkll with our FenlMeuch. It is at least mteneiling b observe, 
though rvm this is not certain, that the Ten Commandments may have 
been originally written in the form of Ibe alphabet represented by the 
arehaic inscription* of Sinai and LafhUh- We mutt beware, however, 
of drawing ra*h and far-fetched inference* from such evidence. Ancient 
and Oriental peoples in general have often bad more confidence in 
memory than in written document!*: in fact writing was pratjably Used 
at first only u an aid to memory. 

That there was a period of onl tradition of the gospel maLeriafi la 
almost universally recognised. Some written rword of Jem* words and 
work* may hale been made during hw lifetime. but the preservation of 
(be gospel mtlrriil wu doubtless for some time ve:ry largely a matter 
of transmission from mouth to month. Many sayings jnd arts uf the 
Mbs U-t ntujl have been forgotten' on the other band, legend wfci Aodll 
at work creating stones and saying*, and many apocryphal gut pet* were 
written aa time went on WitOesi to the period whe-fl this gospel-making 
process tu atilt going on, and even thr prat tradition was still in a fluid 
state, ia given by rtOIrtt of the second or third century papyri found by 
Grenfell and Hunt at Oiyrhynchua m (he early day* of papyftw du- 
coverie*- While it ia hardly likely that any of the unnjue dyings in 
ihfse papyri is a genuine saying of Jeall*. they giv<* a most instructive 
glimpse into the life of the early cfiurch- 

Wbrthcf or not there was a period of oral transmission in the case of 
thr Pentateuch, rotirh of the material may be a great deal older than 
the book* which contain it The fact that writing was commonly itsed 
fnim the Bronze Age on increase* out confidence even in Irtditktli pre¬ 
served by such Late source* a* the priestly stratum of the Pentateuch 
(ABAC 1M f) Scholan have .^jmetiines supposed that the social and 
moral level of the lawn aUribuUd le Moses was too high for such an 
early age. The standards represented by the ancient law codes of the 
Babylonians Atsymns. and II it lilts, as well u the high ideals found 
III the Egyptian Book el the Dead and (he early Wisdom Literature 
of (he Egyptians, have effectively refuted thU assumption Here agam, 


l|| -U-7J 


TEXT ATI Li LiNGUAI 


*7 


the u^Id« fcll evidence doe* toot prove that the Hebrew k«l were 
actually given by Moms; il merely proves that tky may have been 
given ri early as the time c.f MoiH, This dispose* <*r one Arfumenl 
Against their antlqnEly, hut other considerations muul be taken into 
■li THjniti before a conclusion is reached regarding ihejr actual origin. 
There » strong internal evidrncr that some of the laws are older than 
others, ami !h*l some were b™ght into Canaan by the Israelites while 
others were Ultr adopted from the Cmnaaniiteu Comparison with the 
archeological material* from other Sllbni does not counteract the 
force of such internal evidence. As a matter of fact, close parallels 
between the Hebrew Laws and the Code of Hammurabi have Hkttudm 
^ theory that certain Old Testament laws were derived 
from the Babylonian system through the medial***! of CaiLoanite cul- 
luir after the Israelites entered Palestine. Thb raises A question which 
“Wt be discussed later fj 195). The point which roBCCmi Us here is 
jarnjdy that high moral standards do not prove H late origin, for they 
mre found In other ancient law codes. The possibility that at least some 
of the laws m thr PrnLateueh may be very ancient, even if the books 
Were written lilfr, is thus established by irchcologicaE eviijrnct. 

4T. Regarding the collection of the books into a body of sacred liters - 
ture somelhing may be learned from reernl discoveries. When the hook# 
of the Bible were written, or roUne, there vu no idea of gat he ring them 
into a uerni volume. Only ktvr were ndkclnDJ made; liter still it 
was agreed that n-rUin books, ami they <mly P Were to be Ampled as 
inapirrd Scriptures. For the Old Tedamcut so meth in* of this v m era 
ntay br seen by comparing the Hebrew teil with thr Septuaglnt, since 
Lhe latter includes the npocryphal books, which t h* former omits. 
Samaritan manuscripts contain only the Pentateuch, showing that it 
afoue bad been euuaked when the Samaritans separated from iht Jews, 
The canon of the New Testament w n « not yet a matter of agreement 
m the church when mt oldest Greek manuscripts were written. The 
Codes Sirmiticus stilt includes the EptalJc of Barnabas and the Shepherd 
of Hertnai, and the Codex Alcxandrinu* includes First and Second 
Clement m the New Testament, None of these manuscripts comes 
Under Lhe hr-ad of archcofogiod material, but revrral of the papyri, as 
w= have «*n. ire Older than these great codices Among the Cbttter 
Beatty papyri is a eodr* from the cariy third century containing the 
four gospels and thr book of AcU. Evidently OUT four canonical gospels 
already flood in a class by themselves as against all the Apocryphal 
KOfpek and were therefore bound together. As Sir Frederick Kenyon 


WJ)*T MILA* THtfiH XTCiKT* ? 


Ill 17-55 


rmuirks, Imiuiu in the life second cenlury may already bvt srd 
Lhf four gospels in a single codex (KSB 31). 

In Ihr Beatty nd'Jrrtiun tbcf*- b *Uq ■ third century codex of the 
Ijftttn of PauI, in rinding t he Epktte to the HrWws but unit ting Firm! 
nnd Second Timothy and Titus. Paul's letters ireie doubtless collected 
long brfoiv the Ircgitining of the Ihirvl century,, bul here «e have cult 
oldest eoDttm^orar>' evidence of such a eiillreLkm, enabling iu to nay 
vi ith certainty thiL at least by this time the Fan Line epistle* were cir¬ 
culated in a single volume. 

This evident* ii scanty, hut important as fir as il goes. It adds 
something to put knowledge of lb* prow by which the Bible grew 
from a group of separate books to a tingle volume of definite extent ami 
afkqowlnigrd authority, Afore evidence of the same kind may yet be 
discovered. 

The significance of the papyri ii put limited to the it™ we hive 
diflCiiwit. The litetary type and form of the WVi, especially the 
epistles, is il3tistrated die. Many of the non-bibliraj papyri ale official 
or perBcmai Jttler*. From these it is clear that Paul and oilier writer* of 
the Nr»‘ Testament epistles followed the customary forms of polite 
correspondence. The way in which the names of the writers and 
addressees, the salulutiotii and Ihc closing greetings are given in the 
epistles la illustrated over and over again in the papyri. The prevalence 
of the practice of diktating letters, or giving a professional jenbe the 
substance and letting him pul it hi hb own words aj in the Near East 
today, b shown by the fact that letter* arc often written in on* hand 
and signed in mother. 

W- The facta thus far surveyed will suffice to show what archeology 
has done and can be expected to do toward establishing the text of the 
Bible, interpreting the languages in whkh it Was written, and explaining 
the methods and circumstances of its composition ihrt canonization. A 
brief summary Of the rcsulta may be given before we go on to diiCUsa 
the far greater contribution! of mh atofieil research toward the undei- 
tUmiicig and Appreciation of what is contained in the Bible, As regards 
the actual Wording of the lest, we have now. fnr portions of both Old 
and New TrMatnrftl*. the testimony of a considerable number of manu¬ 
scripts much older than any prevloudy known. No startling new read¬ 
ing has been established for any verso in the Bible by these discoveries. 
On the whole |hr evidence of the great fourth and fifth cchlury codices 
hap been confirmed, bul our knowledge of Ihr transmission of the text 
ami the relationships of the various families of manuscripts has been 


fm AKP LAN'CHAUE 




<1 «? 

largely rr' tid. It hi hen tbo^n that & period of rather free treat¬ 
ment preceded the effort to flAliJiMiir the test, but in spite of this 
freedom the ttlbfftancfl arid in the main even the wording or the teat 
have been well preferred, with many variation* and uncertainties in 
details. In a few instances arehecikjflic*| evidence her confirmed doubt¬ 
ful readings of the teat. 

For the interpretation of the biblical language* ire owe to irek 1 - 
ological discoveries ■ gerat deal of He* material. The history of ancient 
Semitic writing ii much better known than it was a few yrtn ago. The 
meanings of many word* and idioms have been established apd clarified 
One mulrratanding rtf the very nature of New Testament C'in-ck has 
beep revolutionised by tire itmly of the papyri. The determination of 
the times when the boohs of the Bibb were written is placed on a more 
objective lusts than formerly by the grammatical criteria afforded by 
inscriptions and manuscripts. Not so much has been teamed regarding 
the sources and methods of com position employed by the Hebrew jmd 
early Christian writers, hut even here there is some material that is 
pertinent. The process of raiwcBPitbn also receives some new light 
from the early codicea. 



CllAiTlLH 111 


GENERAL ORIENTATION 

Mure Ihaft the ex plana Lion of WOffdfl and idioms is needed for Ihc 
understanding at the Hifcle, or of any literature. The hooka of the Old 
adiJ New TcikinnL were cmL ur.Lv composed to the pj^ken 

by line ffritm lad their crifiDa] readers; they vers also east In nialdj 
Jtfovidd by the life of the timu, The literary forma, the tracery, the 
very way* of thinking Were such il hid meaning for the writers and the 
people for whom they wrote, Jui4 *i writer* aid preaehers of our day 
draw illustrations and even vocabulary from electricity add aviation, 
» the prophets and apostles of old spoke in terms of the com moo life 
of their times, This Is notably Lruc of the teaching of Jrsus: the shepherd 
and hii sbeep, the sower in the held, the woman at the mill, children 
pLu.vi.ng ift the umrkci-placc H camel* and sparrows and Lilies—such wlt-' 
the means he employed to convey hi# me«*gc U> his 2 1 rarer*- Familiar 
as these things were to the people of uckct PaleAtinep »me of them 
an almost as strange to us aa radium or vitamina would have been to 
the children of Israel. One ran no more understand ancient Hebrew 
and Greek literature without knowing Greek and Hebrew life than one 
ftpuW hope to understand modem literature without a knowledge of 
modem bfe. 

It is here that archeology makes its most important contribution. It 
provides a general iij-ientatJiin. by which one is enabled to read with 
something of the background that was presupposed by the Writera of 
the Bible. We art thus enabled to read with the a*aU ranee that what 
the words say to us is what they were intended by the writer* to lay 
to their original imtdrrs, rather than some alien meaning suggested by 
our own presuppositions. 

JO. One of | fir most important prerequisites for an understand inf; of 
any history nr literal ure H an acquaintance with its geographical setting. 
A traveler once remarked to the Writer that the view of Greece from 
an neroplane had done more than ad the b$olu he had ever read to give 
him an understanding of Greek hUtory, Many a Student of history has 
been surprised to kara how a constant use of the map hdp* to make 
fact! fall into meaningful patterns. Not only of history t* thU true, 
but also of *ny form of literature which employs n geogra plural setting 
or makes topographical allutHdi, When a prophet refers to “the ned- 
lency of Carmel and Sharon “ (Isaiah 3&S) „ nr a psalmist sayi, “ Tabor 




IJXVCHAL {HUTSTATIOS 


HI 


and llrmiyti ibil] rejoice in thy ftp.me” (Piiilm 80; 18) r only one whe* 
kaav$ Fatastihe can fully appreciate- whnt h meant. 

Far Life*! general geographical features of Pideslittr and Lhc other Bible 
landa. of course, we ore not dependent on Archeology. The mountains 
stilt stand where they stood in ancient limes, and the thnw, For 

the most pari, where they used to flow. In the alluvial plains of Baby¬ 
lonia, to be sure, the beds of the Tigri) and Euphrates have shitted 



Fix * rilir* t _ JiplllwJ by Fihiihik. KftJlIiL. 

<Fhu(L«)H|]b hr ife« imSoM. 

repeatedly, and the same thing » true of the delta of the Nile, The 
meandering Jordan, lOO, hftL filled up and abandoned portions of its bed 
how and then, and has eat new channels through its clay bants here 
and there. All this has little bearing upon the Bible* cor has archeology 
much of importance to say about it_ 

A* ragged* the locations of cities. wc rsji Irani much From 

archeology. In the first place, the Bible mentions many cities and Coun¬ 
tries. both in Palestine and clsewbej* in the ancient world, which havr 
been identified by the aid of Egyptian and Assyrian documents. Egyptian 
rulers had the Ratals of conquered Asiatic ciiira carved oh the walls 
of templet (fig, 4). Fragments of bmlcen jars inscribed with curse* 


WEI AT H£AK TllI-^C flTOSE&P 


ilf *a-m 


ftl 

against I he momb of the phimob havr yielded many pkt-iutmu 
ip CniiAim and neighboring Countries iB.VSOR JJfl. ftl, pp. IB ffl. The 
triumph nl irh« 7 ripti 0 feti of Inter Assyrian emperor* name many other 
place* lu which the Bible refen. and often enable us to determine where 
they v.i-cv Hiiu.Tlnl. The Aminu Se-itcrs (§ 7 L | and other cuneiform 
texts five similar informrition. 

The identification of ancient wtw has already beep dkuwd Al a 
nutter of archeological mrlhod (§ 14) Ken? ire APe ronreronl Tw>t with 
methods bal with mulls. Only a fete examples c*n tie given, but they 
may Iw e-ufficirril Id *bow what archeology is accomplish mg in thi* 
regAnl. 

it. Kd topographical problem in the Bible ha* more intrigued scholars 
than the route of the rxnthis. Thus far* unt&riunately H archeology 
has shed very little k^bt tm this quint bn. The location of Ml, SlpjiJ 
if still unknown: there is no dearth of theories., but none has been lldth 
o logic ally established. Within fifty miles of the mountain «rbich Chm- 
Lian tradition has regarded as Sinai since the Byzantine period are 
the Egyptian mine* where Petrie found the Sinailk- inscriptions uf which 
*c have already fpokcru The presence of theie mine* m that rcgion 
Ililm been urged bolh for ami against the Iraditioml dt« It seenu 
hardly likely that the ffcbrrWK after runping from Pharaoh** basts at 
the lied Sea would make for a point so near the place where dure were 
mines guarded by Egyptian soldiers- On the other hand, Albright argues 
that Ihi- close connection between Moses and the Kcailrs, who were 
smiths, favors a location in the neighborhood of a ruining center (ARD 
»>■ 

An for other point i ruimed as slalbus in the wildernea* wandering, 
Kadesh Bamca hrt* Wti identified by many travelers with a spring craw 
known as 'Ain Qsdfia. A much morr fuiilahlr place i* the nearby fc Ain 
IJudeirat, though thr Israelites encamped thereabouts doubtless usd 
both of thru springs and a third one in the vicinity also i AArfOK iv, 
pp. IlDf). A few points in the subsequent journey can be identified, 
such as Punon, which is still called Fcinirn (ibid., 3tt-3£), The only 
place on the route nt which important excavations have been under¬ 
taken is Esiwgrbcr* inter Used by Solomon as a seaport ffiAH}. The 
csravalbn has not as yet (jisdoud any rvkirner of occupation in the 
period of I hr rxadus, but that is only what We should expect. The 
migrating Israelii#* would hardly find lodging in a city. What is meant 
by the statement that they stopped at Eaion-gobor U probably that 
they ramped At Of near the place Where the city was later established- 


r 1191 ^-) 


gfkerat. onrnMTA»D?¥ 


OS 


It i$ hardly reasonable, In fact, to expect archeological evidence at their 
mjfMm anywhere. We ranno! expect much help from archeology is 
tracing the ftnite of a people's migration through the desert, 

■Si. In Palatine the pioneer exploreliuin of Edward Robinson identi- 
fiwl many isrL|n'ir|nint |jt« of Old Tesla me nt history, The great survey 
of Palestine niid? hy Cornier and Fits associates for the Pddtlfie E s plora- 
lion Fund added to the list, and subsequent investigation fyu afforded 
still fiither identification*. Improved TfteEbodi have also served to correct 
many False identifications, und to r*tablt*h ffliwy which were uncertain, 

Tii l- site of Shiloh, where the Ml be matte was pitched in the day* of 
the judges, was a subject of some dispute until the parti*3 excavation 
of Seiluh by a Danish expedition showed that the occupational history 
of the iilr Corresponded lo whit the Old Testament indicated for Shiloh, 
Many other silei of pre-monarchic times have ei(fivited f 

hut not much of importance from the topographical point of view has 
been diseuvered. kl such plaw a* Khecbr-ln, Bethel, Ai, Jerieho. and 
Beth-shemesh the identity of the site wa* practically certain before 
excavation was undertaken. At other places the identity of a site remains 
uncertain even alter several seasons of excavation^ Such a place is Tell 
Bell Minim, probably but not certainly the site of the town known as 
KIfiathTicpbi-r and Prhir in the Old TeslamrnL The local itm of Mixpah 
ii trill an unsolved problem, though Bade and others have confidently 
identified it with Trl| tn-Na-iheh. 

The site of f*ibeah, Saul'* bum* and capital. is practically certain. 
On the basis of its location, Tell cbFul, about three miles north of 
Jerusalem, wo selected long ago by Edward Robinson. Excavations by 
Albright have uncovered the remains of a fortrwhich is shown by 
the pottery found in it to have been built at about the time of Saul and 
destroyed soon afterward. Both in location and ip the date of lU con¬ 
struction this building corresponds to what the historical record in the 
Old Testament indicates for Sauls headquarters. Therefore, even though 
there is no direct evidence to connect the budding with Saul himself 
specific* LI v„ there is also ho rc*vm to doubt that it was actually his 
castle. 

The site of Jerusalem ha* never been in doubt, but there has been 
much uncertainty regarding the exact area covered by the city in the 
earliest, period*. The southern portion of the western bill, now outside 
the city wall, is traditionally known ai Zion. For many centuries it has 
been supposed that thi* was the location of David a city. Some scholars, 
however, have long believed that the southern end of the eastern hill. 


WHAT Mt AW THESE srosa! 


{(»> 


N 


known A 3 Qfiid, now »wmi only with %^tUbl? prdfini, wis ik site 
of the anrirnt dty. This view hashed! dcariy «oti firmed by excavation. 
No remains of building® or wall* earth r than Roman timra, and only 
I few fru^rarnls of Israelite {Kittrfy. have b«n found on tti* sonth- 
western hid. Vrhcms forttflealioni dating from Canaanitr time* and u 
late as tii# 1 Msi'clbcAA age have been uncovered on the soutisailtm 
hill. Jn f 4 cl, a ilmofi wall with a emsm^'c gDte, in the time of the 
MAtxmbc**, witt found by the British excavator* on the western side of 
the epulera hilL facing the Tytopaaan Valley. 

AH this seems to show that the city of Old Tntimccl lime* did not 
take In the southwestern hill or the valley it nil. though of course it 
u possible that thef* were houses outside of the wall, u there are it 
present. The matter is complicated, however, by the eriiUuw of other 
evidence b^Linf that the Hjuthwrrtrm hill was included in the city 
at Least as early as the eighth century R- C- The small quantities of 
Israelite pottery found mi ihil hill and also a little farther north* near 
the present Jaffa GpIp, prove no more than the clraletiet of a KtHnsst 
which may have lain outside the wall. But there il Other evidence to go 
With this. Just inside the mouth of the tunnel which conducts L_e 
water from the spring on the eastern *i4e of Ophel through the hill to 
the Pool of Siloam, in I he valley between Ophrl and the southwestern 
hilt, some boy® aw homing in the tunnel in 1680 found an inscription cut 
in the n*ek. Scholars who examined il found that it was written in the 
Hebrew' alphabet of about the eighth century, and that il recorded the 
completion of the. task of cutting the tunnel through the hill. It a 
hardly Open Is doubt that this tunnel u the conduit referred to in S 
Kings 5£ti:£G, which uys that Ile-ickjah, who ftped at the end of the 
eighth century, u made the pool acid tie conduit and brought waIct into 
the city." But if that be », the pool must have been inside the city 
vail at that lime; indeed it in Kurd to imagine that such a pool would 
havtr Wfl made outside the city. The western hid, or at leant a part of 
il. must have been included also, since the outer wall would hardly run 
along the western side of the valley. leaving the hill unliide to overlook 
and dominate it. 

Perhaps the fohilLnn of tin- problem lies in a process of expansion 
and later contraction of the city During the Persian and Greek period® 
the wall may have lUmnmded i much a tun] Iff atm than it 4td in the 
prwpttou* days of the monarchy Or it may be that the southeastern 
hill vu separately fortified at a time when hostile armies occupied the 
two hills. The struggle during the hligCfibtaft period for possession of 


it m] 


O&vraAL MIE?fTATI«l 


69 

the ' Akm 1 or citidfJ (protihlj' Optiet, or Lhe northern pirt of ||) i] | ns- 
trate* Ihii. possibility. Be lli&L ai it may* the fseta cited tLlmUntc ihe 
importance of archeological evidence for settling q uestiona of topography, 
and also Ihe fact that Ihe evidence is Hot al^aya complete nOT ill impli¬ 
cations entirely clear. 

A City which #ih important in Old Twlimenl history and ki played 
an ev*n more imporUnt part in the hiiiory of Fftlrilinuin archeology ia 
Lschish. When Petrie was sect by the Palestine Exploration Pynd to 
inaugurate the first archeological excavation in Pakftme. the task espe¬ 
cially bid upon him was to find Ihe site of Lachuh. He wo able to HI 
at once from the archeological remains that the site which Robinson 
had suggested wo merely a Roman settlement, no! occupied »t all in 
Old Testament liroct. As the true Site Petrie «l«!d the nearby Tell 
el-EJ*si, and there he began the excavation which wo continued by 
Frederick J. Blki A day tablet belonging |p the name correspondence 
as the Amaru letters, and mentioning a man named ZrmriEa, who 
appears in the Amaru letters n the lord of Lachtsh. w M taken by 
HJitt> and commonly accepted fnr many years, as proof that Tell el-Hesi 
vraa larfekti. But the letter is not addressed to ZmirkLa; it mfirflj 1 refers 
to him, and is addressed to another nobleman who probably lived at 
some other city than L&rhhih. Some yean ago Albright invested Tell 
ed-Dtiweb as the site of Ladmb, on the bask of ilt location and wie P and 
the evidence of it* occupational history afforded by pottery found on the 
surface. The results of excavation, especially the dklCovery of the Lieb¬ 
ig letters, have now confirmed this identification. The name of the city 
Ip mentioned in oue of the letters in sutb a Way as to suggest strongly 
that the official to whom the letters were addressed wai stationed at 
Uchilh, In Letter IV Hoshatsh writes to h'u superior, Yaosb, Invesli- 
gatc, and (my lord) will know that we are watching for the signals of 
LacMsh aecording lo all the indication* which my bid hath given, for 
we cannot see Aseklh " {Albright 1 ! translation, BASOK No. 70. p. 14) t 
One of the most recent topographical discoveries in Palestine is the 
site of EEkon-geber, the seaport which Solomon established on the Ked 
Sea for trade with southern Arabia ft Kings QiMkfcS)* The moat 
oalural location for this port would he at the northern end of the eastern 
arm Of thr Red Sea, now known as the Gulf of Aqabah. AH efforts 
to find the site, however, were fruitless until a few years ago. At the 
city of Aqabah there are no traces of occupation in ancient times, 
Re maim of the eariy Christian CMitu™ ire found at a place which 
was known as AHa, and this urn* was doubtless derived From E3atb P 


WHAT MXA.K TllDil BtOlfdSp 


(il M-S) 


06 

the name of a place which hw wme obiCU ft ConnecUoh wilh EttOfPgeW 
to the Old Testament. Bui again there are i» remain* at Ail* from the 
period lev which Salomon lived. At a point near the northwestern hhtkt 
of the gulf hive been found dev tnees of the mining ind smelting 
industry which vu irtivejy pmetiged in this region in Solomoh'i lime, 
but here too there an: no remain* of nn Ancient city. Between thtl point 
acihJ Ail*, however, FnU Freak. * German traveler. found * smalt mound, 
on the surface of which lay fragments of indent pit Lory. Director 
Gluerk of the Amman School of Oriental Research in Jerusalem retog’ 
niieil this pottery as belonging to the period of the early Hrl^w 
monarchy A* ^xandiuitioB of thr site ffmrfirraeH thin, Kundipp were 
flunk and the presence of ancient walk below the surface was established, 
and in the spring of l&SS about a third of the mound was excavated. 
The rmUi allowed that this was an active center of the copper industry 
and of commerce in the lime of Solomon and for acvetal CenturaM thirre- 
afler F m that Ita identity with finon-grta, if not demonstrated beyond 
all question, was at [east reasonably assured. Two more campaigns in 
1030 and 1040 yielded further discoveries (§£ 101 h 115). 

53. Inscriptions have proved useful in identifying site* of the New 
Testament as well as those of the Old Testament, fn 1B3& SlerrcU 
found an itiMTiptioti which established the location of Lyslni, the city 
when Pin] wig stoned and left for dead (Acts 14: Hi). Derbe also vu 
identified it about the same Lime, but in this case the absence of the 
name in inscription* presented the IderiliEcaliota from being entirely 
conclusive. The site of trarvium if still known n Komyah. clearly reflect¬ 
ing' the ancient namr. Many coins as well as inscriptions have been 
found at these places and others named in the book of Acts. 

tn classical archeology particular points within a city, or even particu¬ 
lar buildings, ran sometimes lie identified by comparing tbc results of 
excavation with data from the literary sources. Not many such build¬ 
ings or places lcl cities mentioned in the Bible have u yet been identified 
in this way. The palace of Gmri and Ahab at Samaria (§Si), if cor 
rcctly identified, Would be perhaps out only example from the Did Testa¬ 
ment Excavator* have repeatedly attr-mpud to identify Solomon's 
“MUlo >r at Jerusalem ( I King* ti: IS. £4), but without convincing 
results. For Jerusalem in New Testament tames we have much deacrip- 
tivE materia] in Josephus and the Mishin, but archcologbti have had 
little success in identifying the buildlugH described, partly because they 
were very thoroughly destroyed and partly because tbc possibilities of 
excavation in the city are limited. The most conspicuous miUDCti of 


tMf]EKT.vTTQSr 


(t4JJ 


07 


Wttwflif identification are the fortnaa Antonia nmf Herod’s palace 
t£§&5, 1M). CJiratiin «bdw* kvt endeavored to estnbliih the Joc*- 
tion of points named m the records of Jems' last week in Jerusalem. 
Unfortunately not nnr of Hue**. outside of the tr-mple a rea, can be idenli- 
ficd with certainty. The Prartorium, where Jew* appeared before Pita tc, 
may hare been in the fortress Antonia, bill Dolman maintains ihflt il 
was in what had been Herod's palace. the present Citadel (DSS 335 ffj, 
and Witriuger accepts this view (WT>P if, 30). 

For Calvary atid I he Tomb the traditional aitci in the present Church 
of the Holy Sepulchre remain as probable u any that have beep pm- 
po*e<L but the much disputed question will probably never be settled. 
The discovery of the Third Wall (§ 104} evoked renewed discussion, 
becaiiit it was taken as proof that Lhe line of the present north wall of 
thr city must have been that of the city of Jesus’ day, and therefore 
that the site now occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre must 
have been inside the city at that time. Recent discoveries, however, 
have shown that the north wall *iu not established in its present pooh 
lion until the time of Hadrian ( BASOR Xo. Si, pp, off): it is there- 
fore quite possible that Josephus’ Second Wall which w*a the qorth 
wall of the city in Jems* time, r*fi south of the place where the Church 
of the Holy Sepulchre stands, turning north It a point farther to Lhc 
f». e, g, fc Daliruui, DSS 375 f; IUG 73) . 

At Athens and Corinth, while remains of streets and buildings of the 
Homan period have been uncovered and many buildings mentioned 
by ctaa-Hcal writers have been identified* it il still impossible to point 
out the actual spots referred to in the New Testament. A rock near 
the Parthenon has long been regarded traditionally as the Areopagus 
i.Mars Hill) where Paul spoke to the curious people of Athena, hut this 
w npw considered unlikely. Same of Lhc ancient building* which stood 
fit plain view of the a pottle and bit hearers when he spoke, however, 
are still to be seen there <BA W r 1 -10). AI Corinth a Homan street 
h*i been cleared, and on it w*t found a large stone rudely carved with 
the inscription (now only partly preserved), “Synagogue of the 
Hebrews/' While this inscription is later than the first century, the 
building from which it came may have been a successor of the synagogue 
near which stood the bouse qf J tut us. Op a terrace above the row of 
Hhops which lioed this street stood Lhc great basilica, of which little now 
remains but the foundations. It consisted qf a long ha]] with three 
rooms at each end, and the central mom at the north end la believed! to 
have been the tribunal. Feasibly it Cu here that Pin! waa tried before 


tw 


WHAT MAN Tl 


(ll«N 


Gallia (Act* IfrlSiJ, blit recent work on tic rite has made it appear 
Itmiit probable that the trial occurred at I hr great bfina in tire market - 
plate i AJA 1 KW. ■IO'j ), An inscription. of wh kb two incomplete capita 
have been found at Corinth. refers, aa H. /. Cadbury has show™ (JBL 
1034, pp, 134-141) . to the “ shamble* lr «r meat-market (mnwJJum) men¬ 
tioned by Pau] in 1 Corinlhiani 10:45. Thu has now been identified bv 
Oscar btramcer with i row of shops recently acivutH in ^ South 
Sto* (AJA IP, m). 

Many other cilia* named ia the New Testament have been rxnvatfd. 
ami much has been leaned of the life of their inhabitants (BA itt. lfl-41), 
but tilths if anything has bert found in the way of topographical infor¬ 
mation which ia of my importance for bihtkal studies. On the whole 
areheology Elhh contributed much mote in this respect for the Old Teal*. 
Urefii than for the New* 

History place* events not only in apace but atso in time. Headers 
of the. Bible, noting the specific figures regarding the lives of the palrh 
arebs in the fifth chapter of Genesis and the frequent indications of a 
simitar nature in subsequent chapters and book*. may naturalEy supr 
pose that the iitdirdl Hebrew and rari y Christian historians provided 
full and adequate information m thii respect, In the margin* of many 
old editions of the Bible, indeed,, are printed exact dates for all importa n t 
even Is from the first chapter of Genesis to the Inst chapter of Re-veta- 
lion. Thr creation of the world is assigned to 004 B. C., the flood to 
234Sr tbc Emigration of Abraham from Ha ran to the land of Canaan to 
IKI, the escape from Egypt to 101, and so on through the catilurie*. 
These dates were computed by Archbishop Usher in the **centrrtit h 
century. They IW lb* result of in iinjnriise amount of industry, but 
Po Competent scholar today takes them Seriously. Aliy person who Irks 
to work out such a system or dates far himself from the Indications of 
time in the Bible will find that he must often resort to guesswork or 
make an arbitrary choke among various possibilities. 

Aa a matter fll fad. there lh no systematic chnnuJogy in th- Bible, 
The nearest approach to it is the series of rtMLttnetils in I and * Kings 
regarding Lhe yean of accession and the length of the reigns of the kings 
of Israel and Judah. Even here, when one work* out the figure# in 
drtatl, he discovers that thry are trot is specific aa they jetm. The total 
number of yea** of the reign* of the kings in Israel, from the dmakn of 
the kingdom (o the fall of the northern kingdom, differs by about eight¬ 
een years from |hr total duration of lhe reigns of the king* nf Judah 
between the same two event*. Fractions of year# were doubtless 




CCfHtAL OktEXTATIQJi 


e» 


counted ns whole yrrare in ranmc civ-, and itf mured Lei «th<-n Round 
mini ben like twenty rand forty tectn to brave been uvcl iil^s M Umera 
mKl'F-nd of exact figure*, rami of rnur*r it ira possible 1hnt mi Hake* brave 
h**n made in copying *omc of thr numbers. 

Eh other rorni'Ctioni the use of rannd numbers, npcrmUy forty, was 
evidently refftnfed is wrfBekfit in a parent many hatueri. Whf® one 
nfld*, for iflptmn, thil the r«ift kited forty days ami forty nighl* al 
the lime of thr flnitMj, that Elijah Sniveled forty day* and forty nights 
to Ml, Hnreb. that the Israelites wendered forty yean lil the wilder- 
n ™’ tbpl " thr knd <W'i reft forty year* " rafter the (lelivrrraacei brought 
by Barak and Deborah nm| by Gideon, and thm God delivered JaraH 
mlo the hand* of the FtiiJirtinet forty years in the time of Stnuon* one 
can hardly nippora UmL the flUmber was, intended to mean anything 
more Hperick lh*B H about ra month ” or "about & gene rating «* the 
erase might be. 

Familiar a* these fraeU are, they are not always Htembonl A promi- 
n-rtit nrcheolugisl krai neturally attempted to eonMruct a table of ctnct 
dates Tot the period of the Judges, rurelating thy figures given by the 
iilhic with the kel- of Egyptian history and the multa of f-icravratbn 
m Paint me. Tn h* doing he has not only taken the reference* to f&rtv 
ycrara and the like u imticatmna of ciact or apprcmmratelv e%Airt dura¬ 
tion; he hfll iko supposed that die Judges succeeded one another in a 
Hgnlnr »ru-a. whereas it ban long b&n recogniled by scholars thrat the 
superficial appearance of aueh ra Wnxmkm is due to the editorial arrange- 
mrnt of the Mftttrud in the book of Jndgea, and that the leadership M f 
the Judges was hfpfy W and oeeadoml rather than nntEond 

We ^ K* 1 fw in applying iht finding „f arehtol^ 

to WhBcal history if w* thus ipore the equally important result* of 
biidieal scholarship. 

Hie fact is Lhat the biblical tiLitoriaiu dill not lrav. : u » sufficient 
noitrri.1 to construct an accurate table of date*. For their purr™ thi. 
wai luutcccwy, «A(i so far U the bask religious idea* of lie Bible 
am concerned il u still unnecessary. For interpretation in detail, how¬ 
ever. it Would be helpful to have more specific information. It is reason- 
able to loot for auch information to archeology, and vt shall riot be 
wholly disappointed, though of court* many problems still remain un¬ 
lived, and as always wc must be cn „ Ur guard again.! false iolernre- 
tiUonx of the evniem^ or hrasty coueluiipm. 


51. Thf first general mult which appear, from the archeolomcal 
evidence is that human life and civilisation ait much older than we 


70 


WUhT HEAR THESE STONES ? 


LlllS-4) 


should suppose from reading lie Bible itself To the verdict of the 
physical Alienees regarding the agr of thr tftHh nti ii I hr *alfa|uhy of life 
upon it, may hr added the clear trllhnany of the archeological remains in 
Egypt and h 1 vsn pci 111 n i Lii list civj]J3talH>Fv in lliest: In nils whs already 
hoary with age at Uk time t4 whi*h AnU&hop Usher aligned the 
crmLbn of the wortd. 

Naturally definite dates cannot lie exported until w* roieh the period* 
when dated inscriptions were nude. For prehistoric period* only the 
mo#l general li rails van be set. The reciml at tempts lo delermioe the 
date chf ihr fhwjd on the hasi» of archeological discoveries will not nus- 
h4 any trained historian. An already observed (§0), there ti no 
evidence to cannret l be deposits of tnud found at Ur and Kish with the 
particular IWI of Gndh fldf At Kish. indeed,. there were several 
flood-deposits. Two in particular com* under consideration here, Thry 
are separated by no less than nineteen fret of debris, The upper oh* *M 
dated by Langdon. on the basis of finds above ami below h, at about 
B. C. The tower one is ascribed by Langdnn lo about vmi U C-. 
and it is this one which he equates with the l‘r inundation. None of the 
inundations at Kish, however, is contemporary with any at l. T r, and none 
at cither place mark* a division between two diffm-nl civilisations 
l.AK.D 34 0 in Woolley's own deaVation at Tell Ohrid, only four miles 
from Ur„ there was no rill a I the levels corresponding bo those at which 
it Was found at Ur. Am a matter of Fact, represenUtkina of Gilgamrsb 
were found nt a tower level than the "deluge " at Kish, showing that the 
Babylonian flood-*tory was of more ancient origin thnn thii. J The sup¬ 
posed connection between these flood* and the flood of Generic there' 
fore, in illusory. and with it goes the neat andheolngkal dating of Noah'i 
flood. The Babylonian flood story, the frequent references to the flood 
in cuneiform sources, and even the lists of kings who reigned before and 
afb'r the flood do not help much more in this respect. 

Coming down to the Lime of Abraham.,, we emerge, at least in 
Egypt and Babylonia, from the twilight of prehistoric ages into the day¬ 
light of history- For some lime many Old Testament scholars believed 
that Abraham could be dated at about 8000 B. C. t because 11 Amraphel 
king of Shtnnr. H named in Generis 14 II I Con temporary of Abraham, 
was supposed to be the famous Baby Ionian king H*mmuf*bi R cu rnmnuly 
dated about ilW BX, on the basis of cuneiform record* This date 
itself is probably Incorrect, On the basis of discoveries at Mari and 


1 WiLdin, 4i A r uh iv. W f. 


ti m 


cexntM okiektattq-n 


71 


tiwvhtrt, AJbrighU Sidnpy Smith. and olh.cn now pul the aetrteccm of 
HiiimiimribEitaliout 1800 H, C. 1 Iti iny «sf r it has come Co he generally 
agreed that the iikntificatiun of Amraphtl and Hammurabi is philologi- 
raJly insti'i'i 111 * m I ■, Ohm more the NipponoJ eo n trtbut ion of arcimilM^' 
lo biblical chronology is found to be Uawd on s false interpretation. 

Qn Ihe othvr hptld, more recent diaenverits art- coming to oar aid. 
According to I In fourteenth chapter of Genesis* eastern palest ine was 
invaded by n coalition of kings in the time of Abraham. The mule 
\M.km % Ihe invading armies Led from the region of Damascus southward 
the eastern edp{e of fljleftil and Mcab. The ei^mtiaiii; of Albright 
and Glucek have shown that there Vli a line of important cities a lung 
this route lH*fore 201 W B. C- and for n cetiltny or two iherraflej. but 
no! in biter period*. In Genesis Ifl-lB, moreover, Abraham h -hown to 
have lived a I I he lime of the flourishing “ cities of the plain/* Sodom and 
Gomorrah, which are lo have been destroyed during his lifetime, 
fn about the twentieth Offllury B.C. there was a great pilgrimage^ 
shirinr at a plaee now known ai B*b ed r P™\ Above the northern end of 
the Dead Sea to the east, not far from the probable site of Sockitn and 
Gomorrah. Glucck's explorations in Edom amt Moab show lhal Ihmc 
rrgkmi were thickly settled at this time, but that shortly thereafter a 
gap &f wenl centuries in their oreup*tinn began., The circELmstiinet's 
reflected in the Jltory or Abraham, therefore, are true to the condilioni 
of the twentieth mrj (lerhaps the nineteenth ecnlorii-i It. but from 
then on they do not fit thfr i rehcu logics I evidence. Thus w** have a new 
reason for dating Abraham at about £ 0 *H) B, C. {BASOK No. 71. p. 34 ; 
ARD 87}. In this ease Arrhbtuhop U*her was not far out of tin w*y h 
for he dated the birth of Abraham in t L»?Ht B and Ihe dept ruction of 
Sodom and Gomorrah in 1 fi06. 

The itory of Joseph and the descent of Jacob and his aorn mlo E^ypt 
is connected by Josephus with the coming of the Hyksut. the Asiatic 
invaders who ruled Egypt during Ihe dark ages between thr Middle 
Kingdom ami the New Empire (1*10), Modern historians agrer, on the 
whole, that the conditions of the Hyk&ns period afford a natural retting 
For Joseph 1 * rise to peswer and for the settlement of braeE lo Egypt; in fact 
two distinctly Hebrew names, Wcp.b-har and Hflr. are found on Hvksos 
fCtrab*- Thr flykstn capital was a city named A vans in Ehi- Nile ddta; it 
hft* been shown that this is the place which was later known as Raamses 

* t£A3UR Si®. T7V W 1(5 ti Ne, "TS. p. Si; A tfrjjud. 4 >C**f fkr Ommifanckumf t* 
tin*] 1U ti S Efcputh. AtMlM md Cinurf^ (IM» ; O.. Ffiiifrbw, JjMB *1 (IHh. 

as a 


n 


WfUT ME-%N TUT** STOJfra? 


t*i «-?) 


■ml «Ull i*ler m TanU, and which in Hebrew ti called £oan (Numbers 
13; 41 ru^3, Awarding to a lt*le discovered there, Uw dty W|i founded 
400 years before the lime wWi the atrle lUwlf was art up, which was nut 
toiLK before la<fl B, C, Hm give* a date shortly More mo. perhaps 
■bout 1730. for the banning of thr rule i BASOR No. A&, p. lfl>. 

This evidence, of course. wa* wholly unknown in the lime of Archbishop 
I'ifcie^ ft is rather remarkable. therefore, that he wai aide to give ITiS 
H. C- os Ihe year when Joseph tu add into Egypt. 

37. If Ihe story of Joseph belongs to the Hyksos period, to whet 
delif tiny we assign, Mohs end Ihe exodus from Egypt? Here we strike 
one of thi- moftt debated question! in all biblical hiiluty. Many scholars 
hue felt that the exodus must have been connected in »inr way with 
lfir expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt by the founder of Ihe Eigh¬ 
teenth Oynasty. This occurred between Ij>P and I&5D, the flyksoA 
domination, therefore* tasted about a century and a half. There is some 
support in the Bible for the vie* that Ihe Israelites Were in Egypt about 
that long, bn! the cvidepi.ee it coilfystMg, In GrttesU 15:13 Abraham is 
told that his descendants will be a$Siet*d 400 years in a foreign land, evi- 
denlly meaning Egypt, and in Exodus 11:40 it h explicitly said that 
the Israel clen were its Egypt 4W years. Genesis 15:1(1, however, say a 
that they wit] return in the fourth generation, and the genealogy of 
Moms in Esodm 0; Ifl-W makes him a (pT»t-grand»H of Levi, the SOM 
■if Jacob and brother of Joseph. Even with the long lives nUnbud to 
Moses" ancestor** foiir grfre rat ions can hardly equal four centuries. The 
combined lives nl Levi r Kohith, anti Ainnm, placed end to end, total 
only +07 years; as a matter of fact, it is plain that Kohalh, Mohs' grand 
father., was bom before Jacob went down to Egypt, so that only hb life 
ami Amram's can be counted fGenesis Mills ep. verses fl. S, 4*1). The 
total li Lhus reduced tu <70 years at moat, even supposing that Am ram 
was not bom until the year of hb father's death. 

The 450 or 400 years of the other passages are hard to account for, 
uaku ffp follow the teat nf Exodus H\ *0 given by the Greek transla¬ 
tion. According to thU, the 430 yean included the time spent En Caiman 
by the patriarchs from Abraham to Joseph, On Ihe assumption that 
this covered half ol the period, the »|mini in Egypt would last only 
£15 year? This Would Ogre* very well with Exodus 8: lti-4i>. A century 
■nd a half, however, would correspond more nearly Id the normal extent 
of four generations, and would agree with the duration of the Hyksos 
domination. 


tl| *"-S I 


l^NFU^L OaiL’fTATIOX 


« 

On the ollirr bind, to place the rituJm B ,i naHy a* IMfi would mvoJvt 
us in great dUfictdlfc*. It would carry with il. for one thing, much too 
wEy a dale for Ihr concur*! of Canauu. While, a* already observed. 
Ulc wandering in the wildermsn -need fiol have Jailed exactly forty year*, 
the deaf implication or the whole narrative \% that it occupied about one 
genera tjQD- If I hi- iBBod. U a took pLaeir in J-iSJj, Ihritforr, thr invasiun of 
the Promised Lund must kve tKCLirrcd welt before |5<W. But *incc the 
kingdom cannot have b«u rat*bli*hed rrmch before lUOU B.C, this 
would ftctr^iiLfttc d]ovring five centime! for the period of the Judges 
which ia quite nUL of the qutition. The Bieheofcigwwl evidence,, more ver. 
nil fa von a taler dale, M wr rihall m presently. 

38. If thr date of the Ctihquexl can be delcnnmed, we oin reckon 
back from it to the approdnute d*h k of the rtodui. Here luo. unfor- 
t u iin| m|v. the problem is complicated. The A mania UMrU, with their 
fn^uent Mrlrficn to thr invasion of Palestine by thr ffabirii {§71), 
ofitr contemporary leitimony. Tu dtlertnibr at juat what point they 
fit into biblical hiitory, however, ii by m menu Ciiy, The most obvious 
point of attachment is thr conquest by the tribe* undrr Joahua. Meek 
point* out that the itaLrttient* in Judges 1 ■ £7-35, regarding the dtit* 
not Liken by the Israelites, eninridc with thr data of the Ansnrna tablet! 
Concerning the llabiru I MHO £1). 

This suggest* a date rml far from 140u B, C for the beginning of the 
conquest* which would pul the exoduj roughly at about U40. frW this 
dale, again, We may find support in the Bible, According to I Kings 
fl; t r So baton begad to build the temple M t Jerusalem H in the tour 
hundred and eightieth year after the sons of Iirurl tattle out of the land 
of Egypt," Subtracting WO front 1440 leave* OStf, a quite jatufactory 
dale for the reign &f Solomon Again, in Judges llrifi Jephthah say* 
to the Ammonite* l hat lirad occupied the region uf Ifeihbnn in Moab 
for 300 years. Assuming ■ date about 1100 B. C- br •fophthnh, which 
cannot be far out of the way, 300 year* back from this would Ir.iH ija to 
1400 for the occupation of SlhoD't territory in MiNih, which preceded 
the capture of Jericho, 

Archeobgbai rvkhnee has been adduced in support of the occupation 
of Moab at about this time, but hrre, as *'e shall see presently, the moot 
recent research point* to a Inter dale. On the other hand, the result* 
of the excavation of Jertcho as interpreted by (jarstang. the director of 
the expedition, favor the dating of the conquest at about 1440 B, C, In 
IG5i Gar*tan| uncovered at Jericho a number of grave* containing 



74 


WHAT MtAV TILL-rK tTOUT®? 




pottery And flank of the Ul£ B™nrr Age. the blest ‘H-srahs coming 
from the reign of Amenophi* HI (1415-1900}, The toBowing year * 
buying containing pottery of the first half of the Lute Bronte Age (i. e. 
LiLMt- I330J w** excavated. Subsequent ftntk have supported thi* * vj- 
deevee. except for aumr toures of a mHhM later settlement. GarsLnnig and 
ftowe r who worked together at Jericho in the concluding campaign af 
1035-36,. published n letter in the U*ndoEi Timn of April 11, IflSfl 
(reprinted in PEQ. July 1&30), aiserling that oil Ihc archeological 
evident* pointed to a dale for the destruction of Cnnnamte Jericho 
between 14G0 atid the aecewHin of Akhcnaton (IftW)- Albright, hoW- 
t vefp while agreeing that the city fell at »ttie lime in the fourteenth 
y atn ty, prefer* a somewhat later dale, between IS7J ud tlfCKl 1 iBASQR 
No-"#, p. W)p Either dal? fils well enough lh* theory that the it^in 
«f the lijiirini was the tdraelite conquml of Canaan under Joshua. The 
A mama letters do uol mention Ihr capture of Jericho, but thi* due* not 
necessarily imply, aft Albright inlets, that Jericho had not yet fallen to 
the invader*- 1 

$&. Thus far, it would seem, the leatimonv nf archeology if fairly dear, 
and it agree* with al lea»t a pari of the biblical evidence, though the 
crifttion of the sojourn in Egypt and the rtdn^ to the rule and cKputfiOP 
of the Hykiaft is left unexplained. Other factor*, huwev^r. mi *t bp taken 
into account also. Thaw is strong cvidrncf for a later date for the 
exodus, and alto fvijtnn? for a later date for lhe conqutut of Canaan. 
According to Exodus 1:11* the Israelites; were compel led to dm hard 
labor for one uf the Pharaohs, "and they built for Pharanh store-citicf, 
Pithom find Raanues.^ Both of ihei* cities have been identified and 
escalated- Ax far luck a* 1SK3 Naville excavated w hat he regarded a* 
the site of 1*1 thorn, fine? be found there inscriptions including the name 
Pi-turn, " House of (Ihe ft^]} Tueu. 1 Fithom is now identified with 
another site, Tr!l er-HdAhrh (supposed to be Raam&ei by its excavator, 
Petrie). Raamscft, n« remarked above, is the mine place as Avar™, the 
Hyksos capital. Thr name Raamseii H however, goes hack only to th* 
Pharaoh RfllflWfi II. who reigned in the thirteenth century. He was 
active at Pithofti also. as indeed be was all over Egypt. The statement 
that the Israel ill 1 * built Raaniseft, therefore. ntj«» to make Ram CM* II 
the Phamob nf the oppression, and ±u a large number of hisdoriaos have 
concluded. Among the inscriptions found three, moreover, are some 
which lbow heavy work being done by a people ealkd "Apiru, doublh*! 

1 fm ibr bwinf 9f (*= ^ Che flnqinL net ISC 


t-tSiCHLAL DHIKMfATIOX 


Cl s*) 




the An inserijiliob of the mmt Pharaoh found by Ftshrr nt 

Beth-&hf«n Jta Palest me refan nlso to the mly of RaamsW Only one 
thEnj! prcventa this argument from bring entirely muduave: il |p possi¬ 
ble that the Hebrew writer m Exudus 1:11 used a relatively ktc jiatne 
for the efty *v« though ref erring to ah carter I line, just os one trf u% 
might say that the Dutch built Nun York i AKl) SO) The rebrcner* 
to 'Apiru working for Itimnn If. however, are imprewve, 

Another argument fur a 1*1 e dote for the erodui, mcreuviTu has been 
found in Ihe dlscovcri** At Raamsesi. We have teen that a HrEp found 
there date* the foundation of the city +U0 year* before she time when 
it was erected, which gives a dale not far from 37»G B.C. far the 
establishment of Ihe Hyksos rule in Egypt, Albright Mimesis that the 
trudition of a ISO year duration of the sojourn in Egypt (Exodus 12:40) 
may be hosed on lhi» ora of Avaris and on the assumption hv the 
Hebrew historian that the coming of the Hebrews was the Hyksos 
invasion. Such a use of the era of Avofii is Uluslnried by Numbers 1$;-**, 
“ Sow Hebron was built seven yean before Zrwin in Egypt. 11 The dale 
uf the eaodu* would Lhus be the 430th year after the building 0 r Avar ls. 
Sub&tracting 430 fram 1740, we arrive at I3WI B.C. as tb- nUle of the 
cii>du* (AAP 343 f; BASiOR No. ifl. p. Jfi), An inseriptian of Ramcses 
IV show* that there were *li|| Wpim in Egypt at about lift? B C.. but 
this may only show, as Me*k suggests (MHO S4>, that not all of Ihe 
Hebrews in Egypt went out with Mows, oe it piay refer to other Hebrew* 
who came to Egypt after the rsodtus, 

There is stilj other archeological evidence for a d*t* not far from I3t>0 
B, C. Il has already been observed that from about ihr time of Abraham 
until the thirteen Eh of twelfth century H, C. there was no setBcd popu- 
laltafl in the territories of Edom ond Muab,. ^jeh m seems to b* pre- 
oupposed by the account of the journey of Moses ond Lhe Israelites 
arouivd the land of Edom, and their hard-fought occupation of Ihe 
region of Hcshbou, which Sbon thr Amorite had token from M«b 
(Number) SEMfl), Before the thirteenth century, as GJtftcfc has shown, 
the toilsome circuit of Edom would have been unnecessary (BAStlR 
No, 45, p. US), Nothing more formidable than occasional coEbskm* with 
nomadic tribe* would have hindered the progress of Israel through Edom 
and Moah. After that tilflr, however, the kingdom of Edom was thickly 
Minted and well protected by a Series of bonier fortresses, many of 
which Glueck has located, A date in the neighborhood of 1300 B. C, for 
the exodus would bring the Israelite* into northern Moab not far from 
the middle of the thirteenth century. 




wn at mxjis amves? 


<1 Hj 


70 

SO But ill that ease they would he about a cenluiy too late to ie£ 
the walls uf Jericho fall down. On* nf the most eminent Palestinian 
ardMologiata, Father ViflCcat, still mainlaitLS I hat Jefieii* did not fafcl 
imLit about 1950 B.C„ but unfortunately the evidence U clrarly Against 
this view. Thiil Cannanite Jericho was destroyed in the fourteenth 
century ea a COpdmwiI that caniint he avoided withouL doing tiokhce 
lo the facto ft* paw know n. 

According ta the book of Joshua. the Israelite* proceeded it unite from 
JrridLu la Ai, near Bethel. mid took it after an initial to dure i Joshua 
7-£). The aili? of Ai luf been excavated, with Lh4 ■ Mfl nMhl g result Lhal 
the place i» shown la have been deserted far eruturies before the fall 
of Jerirho. Father Vincent uiggnte that when the Israelites attacked 
Ai. the CuiuniLn of Bethel write merely using the ancient CUIM of the 
P- H ply Bronze city as au outpost against the invaders fRB l&Sff. pp «i- 
Oft). It is true thi I the name Ai means 1 ruin F m Hebrew„ and would 
hardly have been used as the name of an aenjpi«i eity. The story of 
Joshua, however, nfm plainly to an inhabited eity. Perhaps the phft 
which l he Israelites took wai n«l calliwl Ai at that lime but was m 
designated after they destroyed it. It may actually have been, not the 
place now identified with Ai* hut the nearby site of Btlheh though 
Judfces US4S t^Ui of a separate CufUiiirst u»f Bethel hy the Iritw of 
Joseph, The «bovation of BeIhel in 1094 shewed that it was deatruyed 
in the thirteenth century, muth later than Ga rating's date for the fall 
of Jericho (BASOR No- pp. 6f). 

Lachisb. the capture of which is related in Joshua R>:31 f. r was 
destroyed late in the thirteenth century, ns shown by rmol excavation. 
Three Canaanite temples, otie above lbs? ether, were found there, the 
latest having been destroyed in the thirteenth century, as shown by the 
pottery (| 13i}. These temples. stood at the lie so of the mound. On the 
mound itself the Latt Brunet Age level has not yet been excavated, but 
budding Jdundnlksi of the Early Bronze Age have been found iUltk In a 
deposit of arise* which show that the Late Brani* Age city *m destroyed 
by Elfp and it hoi proved possible to determine almost the exact JW 
when this happened. With fragments nf thirteenth century Mycenaean 
and Aegean pottery thelte wc-re found in the ashes a scarab of R&mcses 
[I fl 301-1935}, ami lhr fragments of a bawl bearing an inscriplkm in 
the hieratic Egy ptian script,, with a date in the fourth year of a pharaoh, 
whose name is oat given. Several consideration■„ including the writing, 
point te the fourth year of Mcfficj»t*h. which was l«3l B-C- (BASOR 
No. ?#, pp. Wf). 11 is dear that the City was destroyed not lonf after 


I f K CO-41] i 


coroAL Oftll^tAnDX 


77 


that date. 1 Wliflbfr lliis destruction 11 to be attributed t a I hr nrv&diltg 
Israeli?-, h another question. but the fuel that no great mUmiplbtL or 
change m thr i m of the three sureewe temples is indies irii makes it 
practically certain I hot they were all used by the Columnilr* to the end 

Another city named among those captured by Joshua ji J>Htr (Joshua 
knona also as Kimth"sephcr (Joshua 15: IS, -ill: Iqtl^ 1:11), 
According to Judges 1: IMS t| was captured fop I hr Iriht of Judah by 
Othcm-I, Calebs nephew. Its site hrtS Iwcjl identified with great pruba- 
hilily as the mound now called Tell Brit Minim, at which renovation 
has been eurrinl on For Several season*. T!lp ha Cninanitc city cm thii 
«u- wi i destroyed, like Lachesd in the- thutenth erntury (AASOB 
xvii pp r Tfl-O). 

Not mentioned in the narmljvef of the conquest, but included in the 
UsLr of town* allotted to the several Inks, is Belh-xur (Joshua 15;£S)> 
Which was partly excavated in the suitisurr of IPS I, Here it w** found 
thal Ihe city fin! been destroyed and abandoned at about the Impr 
when the Uyksrjs were driven out of Egypt, anil that it had been 
wmpked At about thi- beginning of the Iron Age (!*«( R.C.h doubt¬ 
less by tht Hebrews (SCB flj. 

Excavation* at tueh cities as Bcih-sheaq, Mvgiddo, and Hcth-shemrih. 
which the Israelites could riol at once take from I he C«hninilri, cantmt 
help us much with oue problem. At Megiddo. for example > from which 
the tribe of Manassth was unable to raprl the Canianitei i Judges 1 :*7), 
the latest have shown that UkC Comonnite city was destroyed 

near the end of the twelfth century, and the Israelite occupation began 
about half a century later, i-e. near the end of the period of the Judge* 
(5 fii) ■ This indicates only that the Israelite invasion of Canaan ioust 
hive occurred well before 1150. w ith w hich all Lhr theories of the exodus 
and conquest agree. 

Soundings or partial eicavalhjin hrivr been carried out nt a few other 
places named in she narratives of thn- Conquest, but in each case cither 
the extent uf the work or the Archeological technique employed has breq. 
inadequate far our purpose, affording no basts for reliable inferences 
regarding chronology'. 

01 With the reception of Jericho, therefore, and perhaps pj fletheb 
the cities which have been excavated testify to a dale for the conquest 
which agrees with the evident that the cactus took place about 1300 

1 Vura.1 tun 3USi> +IP Ik. JOflJ u iuat i^iTj.irT4 Li* AlhrigrAL'. itrhmuI Ihii mr*™* ihit 

3i«.i!i fell liWf |€JO 


D C. or □ liltfc U-ttT. Wlut iihiEi frf uy thru of JerLchn. »nd what of 
the Habim, and the ISy(i»i? To Attain nay clarity in this extremely 
complicated attention we royal review the implications of each H-mpel- 
iflf hypothesis One thin* m cl tmii whether or no l the Hebrews entered 
Egypt with I he Hykxn* the exodus under Moa« Cannot hare occurred 
ns eari.v ms ! Stifl H, C™ whrh the Hykxos were erp^iy from Egypt That 
would nuke the sajuuns Eh Egypt ranripnad to the known duration of 
thr Hykso* rule. and would fit the four-generation tradition if the jrhrit^ 
ikitia were of normal length, hut il would run etwnter to all th* areht- 
ftjojpcal evidence. 

Of the remainmg pouftinitira, if I ho biblical nnrmtivpa *re to be 
ampled ns reliable sourer?. there are three which require aerioiw «rtl. 
■.idrrelian. The first ia the view of Gnrslnnp and qthm that the exodus 
100 k plncr nt about 1447 and the invasion of Canaan at about 1407 
iCSJJ Thr figure* ffiven In Judges II; ft and 1 Kings frl support 

I hi- It has lhe advautngr also of allowing ns to regard the Hiibiru of 
llir Atniinia letters m the Israelites led by Joshua, and it accords- with 
t he date actually a signed to the fall of Jericho by Gantang^ A 
century nr more, however, will then intcrnw between this event and 
lhe capture of BelhrL Luehiah, and Debir. The ipvaakm of Edam and 
-Muab. moreover, will full k this nUcrtftl, instead of preceding the fall 
of Jericho. The data of Gcn«is and Escdus^ also, are liard to explain 
on this basil. 

Tiir ndi-antagcj of this theory are forfeited, but its disadvantage 
are overcome by Albrights view that the cSsdtt happened shortly before 
IfflM B-C -. and the invasion of Moab and Canaan at about the middle 
of the thirteenth century. These dates follow from the ex plana Lion 
giweta above for the 4*0 years of Exodus 18:40 aa baaed on the era of 
Tapia. Time is thus allowed for lhe circuit of Edom and the oonquwt 
of Sihon’H territory in Masb before the inv*»wn of Canaan- The data 
from Lflehisli nad Debir fit into the picture also. The capture of Bethel 
(“ Ai?) can h+ brought into Eht »eheroe if pat at the latest possible 
datr. but Jericho, even according to Albright's own dating, wi]] have 
been m rums for.it least half a century when Joshua crossed the Jordan. 
The four-gcliera I ion tradition of Genesis 13: Ui and Exodus &; 10-20 and! 
lhe figure* m Judge? 11: ft and 1 Kings fl:| hit left unexplained also. 
The Habmi. of coUtie. may be connected with earlier Hebrew invaders 
in the patriarchal prnud {Qvmm 34; Wti). 


GMamr it*m Ac Ml *r W h*im m iw I»h». Itt dur un, mr^rel 
™ llw btUir.1 it frtanlnL ** -WPru^TiMiLr, pre*i|1wia «UuitEq#n1 by u much m 
tm «tr 7™* cr j. *iJ J b fc G&rtla«£ Tkt 5M** tfJtrkkm [llK], pp. |Wff. 


CP *■* cqqfEKAL Ofl£E*f ATIOV ^j) 

Thr theory ihnt the nodiii took plat* after the middle of the thir- 
t«mh i?t'iitu ry r and the mnqye*t at th* efid of the erulUry. u tww 
aiKutiJ by H. H. Rowley <BJKJ, Idffl, pp. han% wmpele 

with the one just diseuiied. It ha* *|| the diftailifci of Aibr^ht'a view 
ohd fill none of the archeological or biblical date which are not equally 
compatible with that vkw, It suffer* further from the fact that not 
only Jericho, but also Bethel and Laehbh. and probably Debir. would 
have fallen before the Israelite* entered the Promised Land. 

Of the three dates discujued it h clear that Albrights meet* l*-»t 
the requirements of the evidence, though it fail* to Account for all thr 
facta of the c**e. Albrfcht himself, u a mutter of fnet, accepts the 
implication that Joshua had nothing to do with the fall of Jericho 
(BASQR No. A0. p, 1S>. [ndttd, unless we arbitrarily throw out of 
court some of the archeological evidence* we *bl| have to adroit that 
the detlmelieh of Jericho preceded the smalt of Edom and the imodern 
of Moab, although in the Bible this order is menct). Assuming the 
historical accuracy of the bibJiea] record pf each event, wo can h*rdlv 
ayobd the Conclusion that the order in which these events occurred was 
different from the order in which they fm told. Inilcitd of a sbgle. 
eoHlmuaui pm*t* of invasion and conquest, there must have been at 
least tw D invasionperhaps a century apart. As a matter of fact, a 
comparison of the a«ouiiU in Joshua and in Judged long ago brought 
many Old Testament scholars to this conclusion, without Uw new airhth 
0 Logical evidence. 

It must he acknowledged that archeology has not simplified the 
problem of the date of the conquest, but has rather introduced Sen 
tom plication*. Perhaps we should say rather that it baa utKwvcmi the 
original complexity which vli obscured by the apparent simplicity of 
the record*. We shall therefor# have to consider this matter further 
undur the head of problems raised by archeological dUcaverica {£§ 10+4). 
On the Other hand, important new data have been contributed by na- 
vation. The range of possible solution! has been narrownJ, and some 
theories have been iMUtftdy ihown lo be imp&uible. For the present 
It must slices to note as a general result that the whole story of the 
Conquest must fall within the fourteenth and thirteenth centuries, 
comprising the Amama age and the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt. 
With all Ibe problems involved, this ccunei ckser to a definite chronology 
than h possible for any earlier period of Old Testament history. 1 

" P *T hfhr, oqtif^iMh <1*#™™ of I tm p«J*r* gtR.de Vuli_ “ U P«ln*uw rt 

“ Tjwtp^fcdMHk fell 11* nin&Lskr *t Je» urifintM until!**,- SAW LOSS. SSJ^H- <3 E 
'Vriikt. * Efwf of CouqiMtT BA ilk | [Bepl. t^ta. 



m 


WHAT AELA W TJTEfJE fiTV^Pjl I 1 


CH <M) 


In lb? ttcmJi (if Judgn Ihtrf ret many references lo the PhiEiiUnci. 
One of tin- firel hrretes named ii .Shanigar ben AnaLh r wbi* kjjird mil 
hundred FhMinis** with Ah ot~goad (Judges 3:31: Garalnng 

identifies Kim with a Syrian tta-captitn named ben Anath, wbo b 
mentioned on an Egyptian aitracon M an illy of Rimcra Q (GJJ 
f), Kb exploit. however, presuppoata tire Philistine in vaiud of the 
country. According to Egyptian rwunia this occurred in the year 118$, 
According to Bgrthidl'i chronology. Garet&ng’s idefitifioilkin ee there¬ 
fore unlikely, though be maintain* that there were some Philistines in 
Fa Ml i w in the time of KamcSej* II. 

The fall of Canaanil* Megidck) at aboiit the end of (he twelfth century 
ami thu building of the Israelii* city at about the mukl> nf I he eleventh 
century have already h«n noted (fiflD), Alright haa pointed out that 
ftrilhrr Lhe narrativr of the campaign of Barak and Deborah against the 
Catiaanitre (Judges 4) nor Deborah's song (Chapter 5J makes any 
reference to Mtgiddn aa a city, though the battle took place “ by the 
waLera «f Mtjiddo" Inferring 1mm this fact that Megiddo most have 
been lying in ruins, at that tlme p Albright at first concluded that the 
defeat of the Canunitn at the River kiihon took place between the 
fall r>f Megiddo VII and the building of Meglddo Vf. i r about 1123 
B-C. i JtASOR No. 3* r pp, tn ft- No m, pp. *4f)- Ur W now (No. 
73, pp. 7 fi) h however, accepted aa more probable the nontext inn of 
Engberg (ibid-, pp. 4-7) that Mcgitfeh V| the last Canaanite city, 
and that the batllr therefore look place between 11 [Mi juid 10,53 R. C r 

ffl the a lories of Samson and Samuel the Fhiiiid&es have a prominent 
part. Their possession of Aihktbfi, Gu» r Ashdod, Kkron, and Gath fr 
frequently referred to. That the events related in the early chapters 
of I Samuel emqnt have occurred later than the middle of the eleventh 
renlury has been shown by the [mrti*l excavation of Shiloh, which was 
bmd to have been dciiroved and abandoned At about that time 
(BA30E No, 30 K p, 4). 

33- For the chronology of the early Hebrew cnoEuirchy m help is pveji 
n» yet by archeology. There m abundant material from thi* period, 
but to connect it with the Israelite kings we must reckon the- dates of 
ibi ir reigns on the bails of data provide! by Ih# Bible itself. After the 
division of lhe kingdom a contact with Egyptian history is provided by 
the invasion of fVEntinc by Shiihak, the founder of the Twen ty-Second 
Dynasty of Egypt (I Kings 14*51). The record of hh triumphant 
campaign tn Fates lint may HiCI be mu on th* walbi of the S^tnplc of 


<1 GEFfEKAL DiUEJrrAtlDF si 

Karnak. I n For 1 una tdy Iht rhiDikoEoRy &f ^hr*bnik P s reign U not known 
though it certiinly falls in the second half of the tentEi century, 
Our first fixed |KiiiUi in biblkaE chmihji^ 1 ip fumtskhd by Ihe 
record* of Ihe Assyrian monarchy who appear on the horiion of I hr 
Jiehrrw *nHd in the ninth mluiy. Tba Assyniu give L> each jeu 
Ihe no me af id officer of the empire and kept careful Hits of tW officers, 
who lit commonly known 11 rponynu. Each krng hud i year |hm 
Mmed after him early in has reign- thus the trsti include the names of 
the kings iik chronntdgieal Onler and thra approximately how long each 
rvjffnwJ. Thesr lists of the rponymi can be compared with a Ibl or the 
Babylonian, Assyrian, and Pmirn rulers of Babylon which is given by 
the Greek geographer FtoEenurul. His record tells how many y**r* 
t*ch ting it also records fdipio which occurs under the 

ifcariou?! kings, and ihe Mact dales of these eclipses can be determined 
astronomically. Thus an exact chronology 1 of Ue^ Assyrian hisUrv a 
madi- possible* In comparison with this ihe Hehrr* records are ray 
indefinite. Many dates are given ircofilLDg to the years of the reigns 
of the kings, hut we have seen ulfrudy that a systematic chronology of 
ihe history of Amish and I wad cannot be Jed need from thus*. The 
tonfuftioo cannot be wholly resolved even with thr aid of the Assyrian 
reeoids, bill a few points can be fixed. 

When a p*tvm or an event in Ihe Bible is mentioned by Ihr Assyrian 
atlnals, we can establish a definite dat* in b£blk*l history. This occurs 
Ural in connection with Ahab, Elijah - ! adversary. According to the 
rceonis of the emperor Shalmaneser 111, an important b*ltle m fought 
at Qarqsr Oti the Orontcs ftiver m 833-3 B. C. against a cumlflion of 
Syrian fcmp beaded by Hndadeur uf Damascus. Ahab is named II one 
of the d*fe*L*d confederates. and it is slated that he furnished leti 
thousand foot-sohliers and two thousand chariots, more than was 
provided by any othftf member of the coalition. Since this battle is 
0o! mentioned in the Bible, we Cannot tell in what year of Allah's reign 
it occurred, but we are able to say that hr w m an Ihe throne in the 
middle of the ninth century. 

Another record of Shalmaneser III gives ui our next fixed date in 
Hebrew history, Thr famous black obelisk, now in the British Museum, 
not only names Jehu hut actually pictures him bowing hefoic the 
triumphant emperor and offering him tribute. Another inscription fi*M 
the dale of Jehu's submission st 641-0 B. C- Again we cannot telJ at 
wha| point in his reign kl happened, but at least we know that the reign 
began act la Ur and ended ml earlier than this date. 


W it AT U£AM these stopt es? 


m 


The payment of tribute by Men*hem P ihe overthrow of Fckah, and 
tie usurpation of Hoilifi, ik lut king of Iniit, ye alt fflfatwnf<| in lh<r 
annals of Tiglrt th-pilesee III. Under bim also far Lbe fim timt a king at 
Itldnh, Ahu, appear* in the Assyrian records The daLrurtioo of 
SaftLarLn and the deportation of the king and people of Israel are 
described and italed in 7*1 -\ by the Ktord of Sargon II. We have thus 
at last reached a period in which exact dating is possible for at least 
some r^rnti, 

§4- Among Ebe kings of Judah after the destruction of the northern 
kingdom the only orm Unffld la the Assyrian document* are Hfwkiah 
ind MiDinfh. Srnitnrherib n £ htncuj phiffl Uhtel five* a vivid account 
of bis campaign or nunpalgns in Judah in the reign of Hciekiab, afford¬ 
ing Mo irriiwrtant parallel and supplement to the narrative of £ Kings 
13-IU (3lggJ r Mnhas^h is named by Esarharfdan (0¥f tUJS B C ) 
imonfi his vawli. 

Near the end of the seventh century lbe Assyrian power was over¬ 
thrown hy Nebiichndreisar f| 7DJ. who rsbilhlLihed on its ruins the Cbal- 
4>'Hn or Neo-Babylonian empire. Imporlaut new information regarding 
the ehtonobgy of this change in Ihe international setting of Old Testa - 
raent history became known wbfrh Gadd published a tablet ietofdmg in 
detail the even! 4 of the last yean of the A»)mn empire, Among other 
things this showed that Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, fi ll to the Medea 
«ld Baby Ionium, not in 6M B.C. as previously believed, but in 0H P 
though the empire drugged out its existence for some years luftger- 
Nehuthndrazir hft a great many inscription*, Tn none thus far 
discoverer I is there any direct reference to his conquests. in Judah, but 
through the historical knowledge of his reign afforded by these docU- 
menu the dironol^y of tbr closing yean of the kingdom of Judah and 
the fall of Jenna Ir-m can be m&re acmfately determined than would 
otherwise be possible. 

The Babylonian Exile, which began with the final destruction of 
Jerusalem by Neb u c had re its r in 587-4. was brought to an end with 
the overthrow of the Neo^Babylonian empire iUrlf by Cymt in 538. 
Cofltc-tepnfaiy freofdi give detailed JuXtamU of the events leading Up 
to and culminating in the surrender of Babylon to Cyrus. For the next 
century nr two several definite dales are made possible by Lbe fact that 
in each Ca*e lbe Bible name* ihe ytar of the feign of Ihe rubtag Persian 
emperor, which ii rsactiy dated, by inscriptions. Thut lbe appearance 
of the prophets llaggai and Zechariah is dated in the second year of 




CttrtEHAL m EILVTaTIOK 


S3 

Dirivij. j.c. Sill B.C I;I; fcrlma, 1:1), md the wmptelton 

HM the nrw temple ii dated m the sixth ypjir of Dan us, 5]fl (Etm 0: 

Oiir tirti exact dull- Ls that <)f Ihi 1 coming; of Nehcmbli lo J^njfalem 
Thi^ occurred in the twentieth year of Artuersn (Nehrminh and 
on the auiimplbn (hut Ik monarch Merced Ip wan Atti^rr« [. Lhis 
■*rould be +45-* B. C. Thai it was AltftHflptt I is confirmed by the 
Aminnic papyri found at Elephantine in tipper Egypt Tfartc wen? 
written in the general km after Neht-mUh and refer by name to softie- of 
the very pencils rationed as hts mnlcmporariel in Like book of 
Nrhemiah. The Zero Papyri of the third Century include a letter from 
m direct descended of Nehemiith H enemy Tobiah, the history of whose 
family can be tiaoed back lo the time of Nrlrmhh by the information 
given in these papyri. 

in the hlrphutitine Papyri to high priests named in (hr 
book of lend to confirm the belief of many ichohn that the 

emperor in the seventh year of whose reign Em Went to Jerusalem 
(Earm 7:8) wm not Artnxenccs I but Artaxeneea If (404-356}. This 
ffiva Ui the date J9S-? unload of 43fi-7 for Enn and makes him later 
than Ndmauih. Since scholar) have found it p<Hsible, however, to ar^ut 
Ewth ways fIWH the data in the papyri, the question cannot be regarded 
U settled conclusively. 

fli. In the New Testament there are naqy difficult chronological prob- 
lesns. and only it a very few points has archeology given any help thus 
far. The evangelists give very ft* chronological data for our guidance. 
Mark indicates that a king named Herod was reigning in the time of 
Jesus' ministry, and that this Herod had married Herod ins, the former 
wife of his brother Philip (Mark fi: 14r£9). From the Contemporarv 
Jewuh historian Joseph u,* we know that the king in question Was Herod 
Antipaa, one of the sons nf Herod the Groat- Aside from thU, the only 
thing b Mark which gives any point of attachment is the fact that the 
Roman procurator when Jesus was crucified was Pilate (Mark 15: Mfi). 
Matthew mentions the fact that Jesus was bom " in the rlays of Herod 
the king” (Matthew i:l) h gives the name of his pod, ArcbeliUa 
•bowing that (he Herod referred to was Herod the Great (STM B.C.). 
and names Cakphu AS the high prirst by whom Jeans was convicted 
of hlasphemy (Ml:*?). John states that when Jesus was arrested his 
captors 1,1 led him Lo Annas first, Tor be was father-in-law to Cajaphaa, 
who Wia high priest Hut year H (John IS: 13), 

H is Luke, however^ who gives the most definite information m the 


S+ 


4.1 !IaT MFjiN Til ELSE ITOSIfl? 


<1 HJ 


iMUJtr or chronology T In ctinnecLinn with the birth or hr, HI* and the 
beginning of hit m i nijitr>“ Luke giv*-* ocw and more definite tlani. The 
trip Lif Joseph and Mary to Bc-lhlrhrm. Lukr l*Vf. was oeraskmed by n 
decree of the emperor Augil&Vfcf I hut H ad the world M should, be enrolled 
(Lub i:l). This merely place* the- birth of Jntti m Ihe mgft of 
Augusta* (31 13 C, to 14 A. D.'), hut Luke adds. “Thii *** the first 
enrolment made when Qurrimm was ^rertmf of Syria,"' E- ^ulptcma 
Qutrillills is knoHn [ci have been legnt** of Syria in A. [>., when a census 
was taken in Judea Luk<i *tnt*Ettnit has therefore been seriously 
questioned, but it hp dhrr been shown that Quirinius ma,v also bvp 
been k^Air of Svrin during ihr liUn part of Ihe reign of Herod the 
Great. Since thii ls an mrtnncr of ftrobeotogi-Liftll confirmation of a state¬ 
ment in Ihe Bible* we sluill rclotti to it (j 1 M), Fur our preheat purpose 
we tna_V be satisfied lo note tluit Luke* reference to Quiriniu* agn?e* 
with Matthew's italrmcnl that Jesus was bom m HerodV reign. 

The evidence of ihe papyri, Lei eluding one published in ]t$& by the 
British Museum, indicates- that later, at least in Egypt. Itlr Homans took, 
a census evrry fourteen yrara for Ihr poll-Ur, reckoning Lack from the 
census of 0 A- D., and awnihlg the sam« pbrtb in Palestine, this 
•a l?i 4 hi point to 0 B. c. as tin 4lute nf the rurobnent relemd to by Luke, 
with a possible variation of a year or two in either dirwtkm. Iterodi 
order for the slaughter of infanta it Bethlehem included. those up to 
two yean of age £ Matthew S:lG); ho* 1 kng after this occurred the 
death of Herod, which was ill * B. k not indicated, but presumably 
it Was not many years, because Jesus was still a fcl young child " when 
Joseph and Mary returned from Egypt to Nazareth (Matthew ■i; IP-itf). 
and Arehekus, who was then “ reigning over Judea in the place of his 
father H™d," was deposed in tf A- P- Assuming the historicity of Lhese 
data in Matthew, we must ibertforo suppose that Jesus was bam at 
about Ml HrC. In othrr words, the calculations on which our common 
system of dating wu based were wrong by liJt yean or mere. The con¬ 
tribution of archeology to this result i* found at two points; the demon¬ 
stration that Quirinius was legalr of Syria toward the end of Htrodk 
reign, and the evidence for the practice of taking a census every four¬ 
teen yean. 

A more rud dale h given by Luke for thr appearance of John the 
Baplisi (Luke 3: t f), namely, the fifteenth year of Tiberius, which was 
f£-9 A, Dn, or, if reckoned from the beginning uf hU eo 1 regency with 
Augustus, tn-7. Luke says further that Jpuii was about thirty years 
old at the beginning of bh miniitry, following his baptism by John 


till**) 


e;i:\fttAL grcfntatio.x 


83 

(Luke 3:*3>. If he n, bom in if B C. hr hhi thirty-two vr*t, D |d ip 
iff A. D. ncirl ihirty-four in tt A D- Thu. Luke'* dkiosp^enl data 
very w^j with lh<- indications given by Malthrir. ArrHrelogy 
™ * hl,t fflr y Hided nothing to iLlurninAlr thes*’ statemrnl^ but it ha* 
“ w,S ™« J Lulct * ifiridfntil .t»i™rnt tint Lvwmk* ™ i^Lnuth of 
""»* ftl lh» limr I § l»i>. tin, rtrengtht ninj: «r conliJf.icr j n the 
accuracy oF hit infn mm*^ 

Regarding Ihc irnfith of Jwus H life and mmiiby and I Hr dale of hk 
ertKjfiiion the indications giv™ by Lta goapeU Jin> confusing. nn d from 
the iky* of the tally Church Father* then hue hem divergent i iew t 
*n th«* subject*. Ip [he prolonged and involved discussion* of the 
problem arvEirologicat winner ha4 played no important |i*rt; Lhcrofnr^ 
while future discoveries m*_v clarify I hr matter, it does pot titiv fall 
within Ihc held af oUr present .tudy, 

m. Th fTT are many comply and unsolved problems ip the chronology 
or Paul 's ministry mmi the history of I he early church, hut here nicht- 
°Nv v offers WBde evident and fiie* *| I™*! one *bito. Thtro h no 
areheotopcaj bearing directly on Ihc dale of FnuVs etinvmiom 

but at some uniprciflcd timr "many day** afier thE* hii lift **. 
threatened and he tapped from Damascus by being lowered from the 
eily wall in * Wet CAotf 0:43-i>, In * Ckrmlhkn* IliSif he says 
that when this occurred 1 (be cthnarrh of king Ak(ju ” ™ girding 
ihs city in order to take him-A trios, the fourth of that m*me K is mtn- 
ttoned in yabateaq inscription*. He reigned frotn D B.C, to 40 A.D^ 
but he dtd not control Damascus before Ihc kit few years of Kt* reign. 
Coitu of the dty show that (he city wu nibjcct to the emperor Tibffhi* 
Mi klc iiSiA D., and many ftcfcoUn hold that it did not come into 
ihr posac*ikn uf Antifcs before Hie death of Tiberius ip the year 37. 
If Paul ft visit Ip Jerusalem throe years after hk conversion (Irakiinns 
li lff) «u, as seems probable, the Offc which according Lo Acta 
immediately followed hk Crape from Damascus^ it would seem that 
Flul'i conversion could hardly have occurred radier than 3+ A. D. It 
tnay be r hnwrvef, u some historian* suppose, that Areta* had an 
" rlhiuireh ,h in Damascus before (lie city became a part of his king¬ 
dom. In that case the coins prove nothing at all regarding the time of 
FbuI'i flight from Damascus. 

Accordmg to Acts 13: T Paul and Barnabas vretit to Cyprus on the 
s fl rsi missionary journey p vhfla Sergius Faulua was procorasu I t Here. 
A Greek imcriplion from Cyprus which mention* a proconsul named 
Paulus has bven supposed lo refer to Sergius Faulua bul more probably 


WHAT MLlS TflLK 


fllK-T> 


m 

h trftrt to Paulo* Fihiu> Maximus. bn rarlicf official. and in »ny o» 
it doc* mat help u* lo dale EViid* vkil lo Cypm*. A 1-atin inseriplkm 
name* a Scroll* Pi Id 11UI n* ft ne ftt the ‘ cujntor* of tBe bank* and bed 
of the Tiber" in the feign of Claudius <4i^54 AD^ and he may have 
been sent from tl»t position to the pmconsulslnp of Cyprus not long 
After the iniedptinn WU made, but again we have no new information 
regarding the lame of Paul's iottmey (BC vol- tf, pp 4&M.). 

The one point at which New Testament chranology Kils been definitely 
fixed ii I hr tinir of Paid* it»y m Corinth, An inscription at Delphi 
prove* that (iaIIiu. Wore whom Paul was brought by (he Jew* cf 
Corinth (Acta IH:1£} + was proconsul of Achae* in Si A, D (BC v, 
4W4). The account of Paul* triad that Gallia had only 

recently come into other, and that the incident occurred after I lie eight- 
rrn months of Paul"* tireach(Fig in the city, mentioned in the preceding 
Verse. In that Case FaiiI MUit have come to CoHnth in *0 or 5U- A., D. 

The fact* we have reviewed are sufficient k» ihuw that many gap* (till 
remain m our knowledge of bibUnl chronology, but that m to far ai 
We have any definite information on the subject it is largely duo to archo- 
ologk-al discoveries. The general framework within which the history 
took place has been made dear for all periods from Abraham to Paul, 
and at a few point* in both Old and New TeiLamcnt history definite 
dale* have been established. What h&i already been aceomptiabed nuthe* 
it rntirdy probable that much more information of this sort will be 
forthcoming ii i result of future excavation and -study, 

6t. Prrhrips the greatest service archeology tan render tft biblical 
studies- ifl that of enabling Us lo *ee the sacred story in it* original 
Kiting in general history. not merely by tying it to a date here and 
there, hut by relating it to the mev?mtnU of people*, the rile and fall 
Of nations and their mutual relationship*, and the evolution of todat 
inatitutiom and civilisation. Many details of these matter* wilt appear 
in subsequent sections, but first it will be well lo consider the whole 
picture in it* larger wpettl- 

Back of the very beginrunp; of Hebrew history, in the age* for which 
tbe Bible a only the account* of creation and the flood and a few 
other narrative*, linked together by genealogical Hit* of name*, arche¬ 
ology show* a long prehistory-. Skeletons found in the cave* of ML 
Carmel and near the Sea of Galilee abuw that Puifanthr&pm Paler- 
riri««up* R a creature related to the Neanderthal mao, lived in Palestine 
*n the Paleolithic or Old Stone A[?e. thirty thftUSifld yearn ago nr more 
according to the geologist* and prehkitoria□*. In the Mesolithic or 


(IISJ-S} 


6ESEWL OBEENTAflOST 


E 7 


Middle Slone Age, pertup* ten (housed vein ig*, another race of 
■*»**«. iniibiud Pilralin* ln d developed the dilute known 
“ S*l,ifian. The Netufien people 1b»d learned fanning, !{„(.„ t ^ndie* 
of et.mslic channel, „ indicted by live heeds of aninuds wlvo« bone, are 
Joond m Ihe eaves with Aim implements, point to uihtropicil 
2T™ 11 * ,n L f'* tr Paleolithic times. * Ion* rainy period in the Middle 
,. f? , “ m thrft “ IDtrT « ,ln « l r <lry climate from the Upper Pale- 
«llth.e down to the Bronze Age. By the lime pollery and copper had 
CWile into u*e along with .tone implements a civilization fChaleolithJc) 
with houses and cities, had developed in the plains ol Eedm elfrP alu i 
JrzrceJ and the Jordan valley. Its remains am found at Megiddo and 
Beisan, and at Affukb in the plain of Esdimdon, a. well n at TeleiEat 
el-bhassul just north of live Dead Sea. while at Jericho * «cn« „f 
Itmtificd deposits from this age ami those just preceding ami following 
it has now made clear the chronological leg Pence of the object* found 
cjfewAcre. 


Meanwhile comparable development* hid been liking place in Egypt 
■ □d m Mesopotamia; indeed the growth of civilization in Palestine- was 
* lreid F influenced by contact! with th**e lands through rommere* 
mgn tiro. and conquest. Al one northern Mesopotamian site. Tcpc 
Giwra, th m arc stratified deposits of successive periods going back Emm 
ftWit 1500 |o about SHJ0CI B. Cj; in Other words the time during which 
the place had been occupied before it* abandonment at about 1M0 B C 
was an long 4S the whole lime that ha* elapsed from that date to the 
present day. Evidence of a wril developed culture before 4QQQ B.C. 
U found at many other sites also in both northern and southern 
Mesopotamia^ 


At ft bout 3W0 B. C, the age of melAU begins in Western Asia 
And Egypt. The third millrninm h conventionally designated u the 
Eaiiy Bronze Age, lhough il is now generally recognized tint thi* 
designation is a miinancf, the metal commonly employed being not 
hronzo but popper. This period includes the first as* dynasties in Egypt 
(the Old Kingdom) arid the auctceding feudal period. In Babylonia wc 
have during this time Ihe Sumerian city state** followed at about 4ft» 
B. C. by the Akkadian empire of Sftfgoii I and then the ago or the kings 
of Sumer and Akkad. The excavation or Mari in Ihe past few years 
hw rtvciW the OiistcnH of an Akkadian stale on the middle Euphrates 
before Ihe time of Snrgon. ft Seems evident, therefore, that the Akka¬ 
dian* invaded Babylonia from the northwest, as scholar* have Iona 
believed, The first Semitic inhabitants of Palestine came in during this 



WHAT MEAJi THESE BTO.’fW? 


a «» 

period, if sot rarLLvf. Nature of Canainitr cities in K^vpttut and Etabj- 
kibiati it) 9 cri|;itkiSA ih^nr that mi «rly form of the Hdirt* Iap^ua^ wia 
ipnktll *t Ifai’S* places early in the period. 

MoU of the cities rhich played an important part in ill t Later history 
of the land were Largely occupied at this lime. Their slnltK^ location 
and strong fortifications f§97) reflect a k(ik of insecurity. doubUts* 
connected with the Mk^bibveifieSt] of tJm period. They indicate alnO* 
however, an increase of aOCIttl and political organuation, In the last 
quarter of the Early Bronae Age a thieldy settled farming population 
occupied southern Transjordan. hut a Lack of political unity and security 
i» iWn by ill large walled enclosures for agriculture (AASOR eviii- 
sli. p, SI) - 

In general the dvililali^ of thv Early Bronse Arc was ■urpri^ngly 
advanced. Nol lea^t among the developments of thii period was the 
emergence of several systems of writing. not only in Mesopotamia and 
Egypt but rtltn in Syria r§ 1 Etti. We have even, in Babylonia and Egypt, 
hiiloHcil record* from this period. Politically *sd rsdtnrally Syria and 
PblcS'lm? were strongly intiuetieed by Egypt. as shown by discoveries 
not only at the important PbeskMD seaport of ByhJu- but even w far 
inland as Ai in the Central highlands of Palestine, Other influences 
from the north nfid sinrthruL. however, were not lacking. Thr dominant 
element in the population of western Asia in this period was Lhe Amorilw, 

For the whole cultural area of western Alia and Egypt the rot reduc¬ 
tion of copper produced a Veritable Industrial revolutinn* Involving the 
operation of mines and the transportation of the metal to distant point*. 
Other commercial wares also naturally eichangcd. At Tepe Gawra 
In I his period is found evidence of trade with Palestine. Syria, Asia 
Minor* Transcaucasia, Persia, and India.' The exploitation of the soUlte* 
of copper and the struggle to control I hem produced movements of 
population and political conflicts OH a larger scale than hitherto. Perhaps 
(he Atneritc invasion of Syria and Palestine, which laemi to have 
occurred in the Rally Brent* Age (BASOR No. 73, p- l&), was con¬ 
nected with these developments. 

With all this tbefe appears to have Wn a speeding up of lhe pae* 
of life comparable to that which lhe UK of machinery produced HJ th* 
modem world, and the artist k quality of the product* «u ^fleeted. 
ULilly mlhrf than beauty dominated architecture and the making of 
implements and utensils 10 a greater dEgrec than pravttUlly- The art 
of ikcuratinf pottery with various painted designs* characterutk of the 
preceding age, now suffered an eclipse, though that doubtless largely 


i: |!E €H-g-;. 


UKKEHAL (BIUflATlOK 


m 

tlur to the shift of interest to metal working, In some direelions a 
renLorkabk degree of skill wo* nle vebprd. Great buildings of itouc in 
Egypt and Syri* /sad of brick in Babylonia were erected, &wli* jewelry, 
copper utensils, vf^rli of gold and salver and of alabaster are found in 
%TPt Syria* AuaL&b*, and Mrsopolamia. The art of sculpture al» 
ii-aa rqltivilrd, The wealth of IhOdc who were in jMjwer was greatly 
increasing' sepa rating more widely the rich from the poor Thi- ray a! 
tombs at Ur in Baby Id Hid and the great. py ram ida in Egypt shoo 1 to 
whtit wealth ancl power thr ruling classes had fi-Seli. Material civilutna 
™ advancing rat without human lou Elialory had begun. 

With the Middle Bn.>hre Age (iftMJb-isno B. C.) wr reach the 
Eimi- of fiamtniirRbi in B&hytuuir^ from which come not only llatrL- 
murabifi famum code of Laws i|105> but also innumerable letters, 
contracts, and relifkHM teita. Upper Mesopotamia waA largely con¬ 
trolled in the hfRinninj; of this period by the Ai^yriini, who alno mm 
li* have rfcrrtHi comkk-rabfc bflutfXti upon the native states of Anatolia, 
The ancestor* of the IsTittitffl, who were living at this time in northern 
Mesopotamia, went thus surrounded by a culture which wa* H a mis tore 
of Human and Amorilr dntfflIs, on a Sumero-Accadiu foundation " 

1 A.SAC Ilf, IBfJl Hammurabi himself and tiin successor* in Bibvlonla 
were A mantes The grea t ctly of Mari cm the upper Euphrates has 
recently yielded a wealth of tablet* from this period, m yet only pur- 
tialiy published, which will undoubtedly add mueh to our knowledge 
of the political and social history of the lime*. The languagr and names 
in these tablets refleet an Amoritc population with a culture combining 
Akkad inn. Human, and Amorile elements (Albright* JBL 1D3S, mi), 
This situation was not destined lo last Jong. Early in the period 
new element* appeared, resulting in Large-scale movement* of peoples 
which profoundly altered the racial ami polities! map of aJJ weilnrti Asia 
snd Egypt as well. The Hyktos invasion of Egypt m the late eighteenth 
century B.C N already discond from the point of virw of chronology, 
was only one phase and result of these movements. The beginning if 
the politk-Al power of the Hyksos in Egy pt wa* preceded by nearly two 
centuries of gradual mfltLnLiOB 4 from about 1 &M B, C (EHH 45 - 34 ) > 
The Hykso* appear to have been a tnraed horde, including perhaps even 

1 Ejn^farra'i ugunrul Ilu bnv ■ 1I arLud by Skfney Smith (PE Q ] Stf B4 ff[ tm iix 

amain! th*I *i**wrbcmi hrtWtai lyp» of fuittry *iir| pankmlu ethi.ir- frwpf 

r»«Kii be titilrl ii£int !r. nriibn-Lnn m\%h <rthrr crokwr, ilwy may HVf Ihr 

cl** iu ImjKrtMBt edkflMTrncfl. Irt tir pfwti| tmtr ibr main tpitiilkm, jwrf^ uniniwfL^ 
h wheUpr the ™djr mJwcDce «u ■ sulLcr qF Jt5,cb,rr*jj,» trwnly of *xmuw***l rrUn'toaa. 


BO WHAT MEAM TJitbl! OTOMEft? (lit) 

some Indo-Europeans, At about the nn« lime «4 the Hytsos conquest 
of Egypt Babylonia til occupied by th* Kaw it ef The invasion of Alia 
Minor by the J ndo-European Hitliles. probably from Europe had 
oKunrtl {ibdul Lvq cfinLurin earlier. Other Iad^EunipnEti appear il» 
iu northern Mcupotimii u the ruling dul in 1 horde of invader* com¬ 
posed primarily of a new raw, Ihe Humana, who soon became the pre¬ 
dominant dement in ihe population of wtatfim Alia and remained in 
through the mt of the period and much of the succeeding Late Bronze 
Age fAASOE vi. mii 1^4; 5MO ISO ff). By about ISSQ B. C. 
Human influence is evident in Egypt, combined with the earlier ffyksoa 
culture in such a way as to indicate a sccoenl phase of the lfyksos move¬ 
ment (EHS Sidfl), 

The evidence fur these facta » of several kinds. The inliuduttion of 
new type* of fortifications or pottery, for example, *Ugg»tJ a new ele¬ 
ment iti the population, though of itself such a fact at the spread of a 
type of pottery might hr Ihe result of trade, Distinctive typo of art. 
Mid) as the peculiar sculpture fOLifid at Tell Hakf and other places in 
northern Syria, which Go*t*e regards as Hurrian (GHCA, chap, IV) t 
may testify to the pmepce of a particular people, though ogam the 
possibility of cultural diffusion without a change in population must be 
taken into account. Language affords another criterion, where written 
documents are at hand. In Ibc early history of western Aju perianal 
□ames found on seals and tablets have proved especially sLgn&cant. As 
Chiera has remarked in Lhu connection. one might learn a good deal! 
about the population of an American city by studying the names in the 
telephone directory (CWC 74 f). It is largely from the persona! mme* 
that we learn the mired chancier of the great folk movements of the 
fiddle Brume Age. Perhaps it should be added that such evidence 
proves nothing whatever regarding race in the sense of physical drawn t; 
it is the cultural unite and relitioiiships which are shown by language, 
names, and ait. For determining physical kinship skeletal remaiflj 
afford the chief evidence, supplemented to a limited extent by artistic 
representations, such as the Egyptian, pointings of Asiatic peoples. 

The culture of Ihc Humans, who have already been mentioned M the 
dominant people of western Asia m this period, has proved highly 
important for the understanding of the Old Testament* Wholly unknown 
to historians of a generation or SO ago. this great people hoi assumed 
such a prominent place in recent research and discussion that Professor 
E. A, Spriser, one of the pioneer investigators of Hurrian history and 
culture, has HOW found it necessary to protest against a tendency to 


am 


OH S EH At. I3M CK-NTATION 


n 

" pn rv Humanism," like the >r pandbLyloutifii h ef I termer generation 
of scholar*. 

Thf life iif lltc Hnnduii bn* Ii™me known in intimate detail through 
the thousands of tablet* from like 15-th century H C dkcoviredj H the 
site of the ancient rity of NllW hi northern MeiojwtftTui* (fig.SJ. They 
includc buiinr** documenta, pmiriuge contract*. and even the trCnni* 
of a corrupt mayor's trial and impeach racti I, L Item* from these talilrli 



Tn A Ntua Tiilrt 

^ f^Mi-Lny c-J lii ChkttLli IUUiU. 1 t *1 Lh*. T!rumT..tj cH Qiitt#iL 

which have a bearing oti the Old Testament wilt be dittum-d under the 
proper headings in later chapters. The Nuii tablets, arr written in the 
Akkadian language, which the Humans of that place. like many of the 
other peoples of the age in western A*k P had evidently adopted for 
public ImmatiiflftK The language show* at many points, however, the 
iaflutnee of the Human tongue. EEiewhere, for example at Has SJuunrah. 
document* in the Human language itaelf have been unearthed, includ¬ 
ing lists or Sumerian words and phrase* with their Human equivalent* 
in syllabic character!. All the** materiolj give ua an invaluable Enright 
Enlo the daily life of weilero Ajm in the Middle Ertnjf Age. 

* for innp-npLkata M iTimbthnu sif PH/ Ijplal Sub liWtU *n A ASOIt ? *M I ST4 





WHAT Mbit THOZ STO.Via? 


<IT0> 


TCI. It HI m this period. u w<r hive seen. that Abraham must have 
lived. One knowledge of the pcJitiraL racial, and cultural wtualicm m 
wnlrm Asia thus provide* Ihc samt-fy,. *o la speak. for Ihc drama 
of Abraham's life. And also people* the *Ugr with a motlry Ihrung of 
raw* Ami niEnm In the tabMi from I hr eighteenth century B.C 
rreeully found -at ^Jari c*cl the Kuph rales wp find ustd ajdap^ ? lie mien 
1 Jsrin trii in l" the ci(y the IT a him HASOR No. ITT. p. <&). why appear 
even pftriirr in Bahyiunil anti Cippiijociii nmd several centuries later 
P U > a prominent pari in the Nuri and Anmnu lablets (AASOR sill, 
p. 94; GHCA tHI ff). Just what rotation the righlcmth century ijabiru 
limy hive to “Abram the Hebrew” |Genesis |4:)d) we cannot lell, 
but that the word* U&biftt and Hebrew arc identical In origin i* Ria>w 
general^ agreed.* Set lunger can we think of Abraham ri _ lonely 
agure moving across uninhibited i-uta to aft almost iraorcupird land, 
and taking ptiuraiion of it as an arctic explorer claim* the woslea of 
llir north for hi* nation. TV picture of him in Genesis 14, taking pari 
with three hundred and ejghLerti followers in a war between onr group 
pf Linns and another, becomes more cornpreliPiLiIhlr and convincing, Tt 
if. Ibftt even acupriling to find some of the H child™ of Heth ” n Hebron 
tCrnnis^), though whether these were Hittitra or Hu trims ■ another 
question. 

Pairalinc. of course, shared with the re*| of western Aik in the 
ffcvrlopm-rpU ^ MiddJcr Bmp*c Arc. The mixture of cultural 
influence* m Canaan at Ihi* time is well illustrated by the cylinder mJ 
of AtannhtLt, found at Tuudl, with iu comhiaaLion of Egyptian and 
Mesopotamian Jencithi motives. Scarabs, of the HyklU' ™lrra are 
found in Palestinian excavations. The Hyksps reached Egypt by way 
of Palestine, «nd at several pt *cti m Palestine and Syria along thc 
raotp r.f the invasion are found great rectangular cneWirr* surrounded 
by high ram porta of hnrd packed earth ($»«>. These were doubtless 
intended *1 protection fur chariot* aftd horses, which make their Brat 
appearmnet in Palestine during this period, though known much earlier 
la northern Mesopotamia. The Use of |»wi andchariot* revotutbniaed 
military method* and wan doubting largely responsible for the fact that 
tbv political and ratal organiiatioft of the Hyksai w fl * a specif of 
feudalism. The division, of the hind of Canaan into little city stilt*, 
a* reflected by the Anuirft* letters a few centurw* | B ter r may have beet! 
in part the rewh of the Hjfcxw conquest and the consequent imposition 

l TL* Hri.ptH.Lf Y+w, Wm, k 4ifl repn-ulME 1» ru> Inn 
L* rriiwinm 4 *r hShttmi (tMt). it f, 


sadtaris^ LhJkn g. |)lra»r. 


C i | -3T5-T15 


OENEBaL CMFEFTJVTTOrC 


03 

n r a fiuiii! ruling fksi fl\'pr the pMvioua populilkin, [Vrhips Ihcrt ini 
some i'cnnKtion, as yet obscuw, between the llyksos movement mid the 
fort tbit ifdwiijir> oceupAtiao m Tmnipnkn cttirp, south of the River 
Jftblx.iL. from a bum Ihe time of the HykAii* invuun ta the thirteenth 

orn tmy. 

Nut only did the Hyfcms- come to Epjypl by way of Pkhliftri they 
olw left by tbe snine route. According to Egyptian ioiarori, ifter their 
expulsion from Egypt I hey suffered a fonjt *»ge and n decisive defeat 
Hi ShAmhfti in MrtJthi'fh Piikfitjne. The site of this city may be Ihe 
mound smw colled Tell f!-F«*nh t which hi? been excKVotnl by Sir 
Flinihn Petrie ■ nd by him identified. Oft quite ioadequat* grounds, with 
the biblical Betfe-pdrl. At Tell Ifoil MSerins fKirialh- sepher) also is 
found evidence of a rlr*J ruction near the middle of the sixteenth century 
which Euriy well have been the work of the Egyptian? attacking the 
retreating Hyltons (AASGR stvii. 54-84). The victories, however, were 
ml followed tip vigorously. The descendants of the Hyk«s paay have 
remained in Palestine until the tttfic of Tbofcbmes III, early m the next 
period (DUE 8*4; EI1H 14 f. . 

With the incursion of new dementi of the population and the expan¬ 
sion nf commerce ill iHe Middle Bronze Age came also to the fond of 
Canaan a great wave of progress in the arts of civilnutinh- The Ahiorilr 
invasion in the latter part of the Early Bronze Age had been foHonpd 
fay a distinct cultural decline, and its elfrcU through Lht first 

half of the Middle Brottfr Age, though both Egypt and Babylonia were 
enjoying at thu time a very high degree of civDikatjafi. The Hyksos 
movement, however, for ill the devastation which it imi*t have caused, 
produced in Palestine n strong lam upward. Similar developments 
Wwe taking place at the same lilfie Slid under like circumstances in 
Crete and the Aegean region. 

Tht facts reviewed m the foregoing paragraphs have almost all come 
to light in the past few decades, and Lliry have come almost entirely' 
from archeological sources. 1 It is hardly loo much to HJ that until 
recently our knowledge of the age of Abraham, lraac K and Jacob was 
lifer a painting in which individual figures were vividly portrayed, but 
the background hud been left blank, Archeology Li now filling in the 
background, and thus giving the whale picture new significance. 

71, This l.i no le» true of subsequent periods, Moving on into the 
Late Bronze Age iliHHMtftW B.C.), we find again a BCW World, quite 

1 Thi Uett* h H ka 1S*L irf ™™*. roriadei rpimpJuc mOlcdiE {I 11 ?. 






tH 


WHAT MXAff TfifcAi; MOtfES f 


<1 71} 


hidden only ii few draufrt ago hut now known bettor than mm* later 
periodi of history. Babylonia wa* -s-r.ilL under Kasait* rule And bail no 
power in the west Egypt however* after the «pulsion of the Hyksoa lfi 
the Biitcrhth century And the establishment of the powerful XVTIIth 
dynasty, had entered Oti the period of it* gtrntelt power til Fftlestihe 
and Syria. After partial and innjncttuive jnvaaioni by hi* 

Thothmea ILI undertook the eon-quest of Palestine in the fifteenth cen¬ 
tury. On Lhe walls of the great temple in Karnnk Are picture* of the 
fiorm And fauna of C«hun and Inscriptions ns tiling cities captured by 
the Conquering pharaoh. including LyddA and Joppa, Gvtct, Taahach, 
and Nfi-RhMo. At the fast mm*d place ft decisive haitk »w fought 
ayainst. a coalition of Syrian princes. After a council of war In the plain 
of Sharon, the pharaoh, against the advice &f hts more cautious officer*, 
decided to march by the pass leading most directly to Megidda instead 
of taking the longer but easier way around by Taanach. Taken by sur¬ 
prise, hi* enemies * tit defeated, though to Thnthmcfl 1 great annoyance 
hi* army w** so pleaaed with it* booty and » occupied with plundering 
that it did not fellow the broken force* of the foe and make the victory 
complete. Scarabs bearing the cartouche of Thothmes Ilf have been 
found at many places, including Bcisan„ and an Egyptian inscription 
recording his invasion was found some yean ago at Tdl ‘Ommch, the 
dl* of ancient Chmwr*th on the Sea of Galilee, 

Thothmea even pushed as, far north as Aleppo and across the Euphra¬ 
tes. This brought him into contact with the Flittite empire, whose 
power at that Lime was restricted to the country north of the Tnurua 
Mountains. In the closing decade* of the seventeenth century the 
Hitlitea had conquered Aleppo and even reached Babylon, which they 
had plundcredH putting an end to the dynasty of Hammurabi. There¬ 
after, however, they had been pushed back by the rise of the Hu man 
kingdom of Mtianni in northern Mesopotamia. 

The successors of Thottimes HI could not hold whftt he had won, 
Egyptian pmsam remained in Syria and Palestine, and there were 
occasional campaigns by the Eater pharaoh* of the XVHIth dynasty, 
but nothing permanent w** affoltipliihed- In the fourteenth century 
the great Hitlile conqueror Shuppiluliumiisl: reduced Mitinni to a 
vassal state, cast of the Euphrates. For * while the domain of like 
niititcj was pushed even to the sou Eh of By bios. 

Tn southern Syria and Palestine alio the pOTW of the pharaohs wai 
greally weakened. From the A mam* letters we learn that during the 
reigns of Amcnophli III and IV Lhc vassal Can unite princes found it 


necessary to ippta] tgun end again to Egypt for Aid against bvidcn 
from ihe east. Amcnuphis IV WAi thf relignui reformer who took the 
of Akhcnaton. set up a n*w upitil which he called Akhetiiton 
at the site now called Tell ei-"Amama, and attempted to irapose upon 
Egypt a or* religion- lib preoccupalima with this Stem* to have made 
him to the state of his empire in Alim; At any rmte the ippctii 

of his vuuli were apparently ignored. 

Some of the invaders are tolled in the letters [Iiibiru, recoiling the 
people- of that name whom we hAve playing a similar rule several 
centuries in the region of Mari, As was Botcd in that connection, 

competent *eh&Urs ire now fairly Agreed that the names Habini And 
Hebrew are phdo logic ally equivalent It dots not necessarily follow, 
however, that al used in the Bible and in the tablets they indicate 
exactly the same people. Recent studies of the personal names of 
individuals called ijabaru in the A mama and Nuw taldcLs have shown 
that they did not belong !o any one ethnic group, but that the name 
meant something like 1 DOfud/ whether used by the people Lhems*lve* 
as a self-designation nr applied to them by others with a con nutation of 
something like 1 foreign brigand/ Just where and how the incursions of 
the abiru in the fourteenth Century fit into the account of the Hebrew 
conquest of Canaan in the Bible $1 a difficult problem, so difficult indeed 
that we shall have In postpone its discussion to the lectkmi devoted to 
problems raised by archeological discoveries (§ 384), For the present 
it must suffice to say that the IJotnru of the Amirai letters and other 
sources were evidently a mixed gfn-up, including the Ancestors of the 
biblical Hebrews. 

Neae the end of the fourteenth century ■ new dynasty* Ule XlXtk 
arose in Egypt. Its greatest ruler was RameSCl 11, whose reign occupied 
about two-thirds &f the thirteenth century. Hi* father, Seti I. had begun 
to revive the power of Egypt in Palestine aitd Syria. Riihk«s took up 
this task and prosecuted it with vigor. In northern Syria he came into 
prolonged conflict with the Hittite*. A great battle fought at Xadrsh 
on the Oreutei. in central Syria* tl recounted in a great poem inscribed 
OB the W*H* of several temple! in Egypt, and also contained in a papyrus 
manuscript now in the British Museum, While Ramesei claimed a 
victory, the result seems to have b«n that he wo forced to abandon 
Syria. A few years Later a treaty, preserved in both Hi Hite and Egyptian 
vCTfk?n *. wu made between Raineses and the Hiltltc monarch- There 
hii no more war between the two nation* through the reft of the reign 
off Raineses At about the end of the century, which was also the end 



ww*T mwt? these mira? {Iln-t) 

of th<- Utf Age r the Hi Elite empire m datroyed hy northern 

eumin. 

7i. As i mull of ■ LE the rammnrial And mililafy amUrti between 
rtpr ration And ■■wither, not la mention the itiierathin* mid minglings of 
different iwpjnk ibe rivil&*rion of wpsitem Asia m ibis period was 
eclectic but fairly hamagfnroLi. Mol only the material object of 
commerce but also the liLentunr, the Ihwi And vkhI and 

rve* Ihp rrh^rkvUiP kb*** Atid prsclic« rilow a rrmiirfcable degree of uni¬ 
formity. in jipitc of djffpfrin^ of Limgungr mid mlitmalily. The Hitlite 
and Middle A.^yriin Law codes. boLh pnihtbty fn>ni this period, afford 
many illustrations of this fact. ■ ■> do also the Hu Sham nth test’- Add 
the abundmit document* in the runtiform script from many pll£<s 
The prrtistrrtrp of Mnapctiimkii influence in. J**lc*tiae and Syria is 
ihuwti by the tin# of oral cylinders and day tablets. Egyptian influence 
also is naturally evident, especially it Byhlos and Brlh-shran. The Uiosl 
conspicuous new feature of the period in these irtipccU ii the flitting 
infuiioti of influence from the Aegean and rv«n Ibr Greek mainland. 
Coming by way of Cyprus and narthnu Syria. That tbe cities of Canaan 
enjoyed eonsJilmblr prosperity is indicated by the amount and value 
of the booty itkro to E^ypt by Thothmes Ill. Jewelry and artistic 
metal vessels and ImpIcmcnU found in the decavalioni confirm this 
tnprruwn. Tu be cure, the omm&on people did not get much of the 
brneflt of this wraith, yet there is evidence that the Canaanile nabllrty r 
weakened by the necessity of paying taxes and furnishing soldiers for 
their overbids, lost ground aa Computed with the slate of iftiin in the 
Middle BioJi*e Agr. while ifec growth of commerce promoted tlw me 
of 4 middle clu» of craftsmen and merchants. It would seem that there 
was even some specialization m particular industries in ccftain Canaanitc 
cities. A notable development ih the life of Fodratme during this period 
was the tendency to abandon the hot Jordan vatky and wttlr more 
thickly Ibe Central highland*. Thf growing use of cistern* to iterr Up 
the winter rains made this possible, .since the springs were wH sufficient 
fur a Large population. 

Our discussion of the dale of the Israeli Le corw|Ht*l has shown that it 
nceurrtd during the last two e«nturir* of the Late Eimhir Age. AbrahAni 
we have placed at the beginning of Lhc Middle Bronze Age. Arvhr- 
ological rnmiiiitbn of atiriml iltn in filwtinr has shown that in a 
number of instances they were destroyed during the sixteenth and 
fifteenth centuries and not rcoccupled for two or three hundred years. 
It would seem. Utfrrfurt, that the first incoming Hebrew* veil Ini fir*| 


(Mmj> 


CLNDUL OITOTiTIO?! 


FT 

m semi-ru&mad* m the central highland*!, ^htre theft were only a few 
cities m the Middle Bronze Age. and that they conquered these 
gradually but did not for Sotne rime thtJnstSvrt become cily-dwtlltn. 
Only near the end of the LnU Umbk Age,. in the thirteenth century, 
when the Lube* which hid came tram Egypt invaded Ihc land of Canaan, 
did the Israelites occupy and rebuild the cities which they had 
from the Caftiksnltr*. and also build new cities of their own. Arehc- 
okjgkwl bearing on the conquest «t Jericho, Bethel, Laehiflh, 

and KifUth-Mpher. have already b«n ducuwd under the brad of 
rhmEUalt>gy (£00). Meanwhile. »f have s«d. the region of Moab add 
Edom had become again. to it had not been since the eighteenth century p 
a thickly settled and cfrUsed country, 

T9. When the Age of Ilwnit gave way to the Early Iron Age {ISOO- 
BOO R.C.), the Indito were well «Liljliih«l in the land, though (htsjf 
strong cities were still in the hand* of Guwmitc* or Axnoritc* {Judges 
1; IP. ^I, *7-30) ■ For some time Util, however, the Israelite* were unable 
to form a strong, united: government, and their hold on the land was 
made precarious by the hostility or other people* who, like them, took 
advantagt of thr fthsrne* of any strong rule over the country U * whole 
to invade and plunder it An indication of the general Insecurity of 
the time* U *me m the fact that at Tell Beit Minim in Lmh C and B, 
and only in these levels, W4*ro found many deep storage pits for grain■, 
suggesting that in thu period ti in no other the people found it necessary 
tn lay up supplies of grain in secure hiding places. Not only Canaanltoa 
hut Moabites, MkUanites, and Ammonites appear Ln Ihc book of Judges 
as opprewf* of Israel. By far the must formidable of the enemies who 
disputed the control of the land with the Israelites, however, wetc the 
Philistine*. While thrir origin is still something of a mystery, arche¬ 
ological evidence from Egypt has made plain the lime and manner of 
their appearance oft the scene. Already in the thirteenth century 
Memcpiah had wop a victory over a con federation of Uvfc Libyans with 
a group of peoples who had rttm across the Mediterranean from Europe, 
Eariy in the twelfth century Baineses III had to withstand a mass 
invasion, by land and ar*. of a similar horde among whom we find the 
Philistines mentioned by name. The Hams Papyrus contain* a record 
of the great victory of Rnmewi lit over these invaders cm the Coait 
of Palestine Of Syria, and on the walls of the temple of Ramctt* at 
Thebe* mnv be seem to ihu day picture* of the battle and the prisoners 
optned (fig-1). B«pul*ed at the frontiers o! Egypt, the Philistines 
■tilled in the rich coMtal plain of lb* country which gtU from them its 




0S 


WH4T Mtlf * TIIK wtoimt 


<liTH> 


DMie. Palestine- From the Egyptian pictures of the Philistine* anti the 
pottery found it Philistine sites in Palestine it is evident that the 
Philistine* win bearers of the Aegean and Mycenaean culture, and 
carried on its tradition in FateslUie after it had perished in the north. 
Beyond this their derivation and relatbnahips remain obacure. 

According to 1 Samuel 13:13 ff the Philistines kept the upper hand 
over the Israelite* by Hot allowing them to have blacksmiths of thrif 
own, requiring them instead to bring their farming implements to 
Philistine smiths for sharp* ni ng. The possession of chariots of iron 
(Le.. doubtless, wooden chariots with iron fittings) is referred to also 
aa giving the Canaaftiles *ho occupied the valley* a decisive advantage 
over the Israelite* (Joshua 17:1ft; Judge* 1:1*), These statement.! 
reflect the fact that the lintlitc rqnqu^t occurred during the time of 
transition from the Late Brooke Age= lo the Early Iran Age. The secret 
of smelting iiun acid the use of iron for weapons seem to have hern 
known in the north earlier than in Palestine, Apparently the Philistine* 
brought with them this new achievement; at any rate the urban culture 
of the Caftianite* had entered the age of iron before the sc mi- nomadic 
Israeli U* were able to take this sup in civilization (AiA 39SQ, 4AS-G3]. 

74. That both Hebrew* and Philistines were able to get a foothold 
at all in C«Wan wm largely due to the fact that Egypt no longer was 
able lo keep the land Under control- While Brth-ahean, above the 
Jordan in the valley of Jrzrrel, was continuously occupied by Egyptian 
gamauni to the time of lUmese* HI at least, hy the end of the twelfth 
century it is clear that the pharaohs had little or no power even over 
the coastal dti^i of Palestine and Syria, The story of Weuamon, 
preserved in a papyrus manuscript, illustrates the Condi!ion of these 
citjc* at about HOG B. C- Wctiamon was sent by R&uie**j XII to get 
cedar from the king of By bios. Oft the way he landed at Dor on the 
coast of Palestine, hot far south af ML Carmel,, in the territory of the 
Thekel. a people who had Come from the north with the Philistines. 
Here Wcnamon was robbed and could gain no redress from the local 
government. Finally he arrived at Uyblos* hiving somehow managed 
on the way to ieiarc some money to reoompens? him for his loss at Dor. 
The king of Byhbs. however, would not let him land there until a man 
at the court, in a prophetic freruy, demanded that the envoy be received. 
Even then the auspicious and truculent ruler, denying any obligation to 
Egypt, would (lot grant the cedar until he had Sent to Egypt for more 
money. 

Unhindered by Egypt or other outside powers, the Philistine* and 





■ ILKfcHAli OHiZKTATlOK 


30 

ImtliUlL w*fe Wit to scttta thtir differences among themselves. Under 
Saul, their first king, the Israelite* at last attained sufficient unity and- 
rtroftb to Ink* the Upper band, at Inst in the central highland* The 
inability of Egypt to eXero* any eonlitd over Paleatme during Ihi* 
Period avowed David to expand and consolidate the kingdom. con¬ 
quering no t only the Phlflslinra on thr weal hut also Edom. \(uh P and 
Aftimfln Mii of the Jordan, and even DAniiAfui od the northeast. 
Meanwhile the Canaanites were pretty thoroughly subdued or absorbed. 
David be&krged add raptured Jerusalem and made it his capital. 
Apparently it *U one of the last tilk* to succumb to the OMlalLghts 
of the Israelite*, 

Solomon wax abte t& take further advantage of the same mteraaticmal 
pjlUalioti, though during hU time there arose in Egypt a new dynasty, 
the XXlLlid* which au soon lo mnrrt Egyptian claims in Asia. The 
capture of fitter by the pharaoh whoa# daughter Solomon married and 
its presentation to the bride as a wedding gifi from her father (l Kings 
0:10) reflect the beginning of this renewed Egyptian activity. Ii was 
fortunate for Solomon that he wai allied with Egypt at thii time. 

7Sr Through this whole period the Israelites were gradually absorbing 
Camamte tivilixalioii. We have »*n that the Philistines brought 
with there to Palestine iron weapon* and irapltiaeati, *0 that tfcwir 
coming was closely connected with the passage from one period in the 
history of civifttarion to another, This was not true ol tie Israelites. 
From the standpoint of material civLlbalkm their conquest ol Palestine 
wai a disaster. In several respect! the Israelite iDVUHfi of Palestine *bj 
like the barbarian invasion* of the Roman empire and the Atab invasion 
of the Byiantine empire in later reuturie*. For the student of the Bible 
this is perhaps the must striking and surprising of all the result* of 
errheologiaU research in Palestine, but it £1 also one of the moat certain, 
The Israelite pottery and masonry of the Early Iron Age, for example, 
are vastly inferior to the Canianite pottery and masonry' of the Late 
Bfonxc Age, which they displaced. David's friendship with Hiram of 
Tyre made possible the in l reduction of Phoenician workers nod work¬ 
manship in Palestine, but it was pot until the lime of Solomon, who 
developed Commercial as well a* political relations with other countrie*. 
that the Israelites began to lake a place among the eivililed nations of 
antiquity. 

Of course r as in siimkr taxes elsewhere and in other age*, the disaster 
to tiviliaatloa was not without compensating advantages. The weak 
Israelite fortifications reflect not merely ■ km of skill in masonry but 





Iff) 


WHAT ilEAW THHUC rroyER? 


tit w-n 


also a chu n flc from a feudal order at society h* one that ff « more 
ilrftloCtnt k 1 , and moratly the less, eultured Hebrews wen; doublJewi 
superior lo ihr Canoanltf^ By the same token, the gradual approprio- 
tkvn e 4 CacLiiririfclF culture ana not acenmpliahcd without coat* the 
]lUf phitf-sU of the pmpkti against idolatry fc immorality, and Euclid 
Injustice' abundantly prove. 

The cultural advnpoe am! the prosperity of Sclr>ttUm’ft mgn nr*- well 
illustrated by the fine building of this period At Megiddo - 1 The ca«fut 
masonry, probably Phoenicia ti work. present i a sharp contrast with the 
rude highlit ml fa idle uf Sftid at Gibnth £| tfluj. An [mmem* oggrego- 
Ikm uf stahle*. su FFiek-nl to accnELimodatr about four hundred and fifty 
hgfrn, rent 111 what & viid of tlu s trade- in \mr*e* which Solomon carried 
on with Kgypt. ('opfwf ntiiHS in the bind of Edom, which was part of 
SaLrtmun'h dnmnm. and thr- -!‘iipurt "1 Eaion-ffcbrr at th■ ■ head of what it 
now called the Gulf of Aqabah attest further the industrial arid Com- 
uirrcinl activity of this period {■§ 11 $) , 

70. While Solomon's reign was one of pwee and proiprHty, ha 
policies Rated the swli of dimed, and already b-fan* ha death the 
crop begTin to appear n Mr h Etohti'lHiam. Solomon's son and successor, 
had lo reap. Rthobaun failed to show the tact and diplomacy which 
juiffht have held the kingdom together* end all the tribes except Judah 
nhd Henjn min revolted, form ing the kingdom of Israel (I Kings IS; 1 -£U) - 
Mmuwhilr, as we have already seen, the international Mtuatinn. which 
had made possible the achievement* of Saul, Bivid, and Solomon, had 
changed. Egypt's Aabtlbnt hail been revived by the vigorous XXJ End 
dynasty, anil the ail knee with the pharaoh which Salomon had enjoyed 
Was not grunted to HehidKwiin. Talcing advantage of the reduction of 
Judah V pt«er and territory by I hr divUkm of the kingdfkiti, Shiihah 
(ftMihotHl) invaded Palestine, attacked Irfusatem. and earned off as 
IhOOly all the treasures of the teniae and the palace. On the walla of 
Karnnlc Shhhak had caned a huiie picture of him self leading captive by 
cards men who are labelled with the names of Palestinian cities (fig, 4). 
Among these are cities of liimrt acid Edom as well ii Judah, though the 
Old Testament men turns only the invasion of Judah. Com firming this 
claim. n fragment of a stone strir bearing bhwhak's cartouche ha* been 
found at Mrgidrfo. 

77. The exact dote of the divukm of the kingdom is unknown, but 

1 TTwtt it lUJI. i-u br irtiH-, uiiK dUi^^fnur'il u- lo wfakh bijUijir^a mHIiliH » fcirlixif U> 
iirn urnc of Safem 1$ 101). 



h r.n rHAL OMIE:VT*TH>N 


m 


iim 

it was not far from lhc- year KW B, €. Tht transition from ihc Early 
Iron Age (Iran I) to wfcat is vartGlody known as Iran II or the Middle 
Tran Age IKHHSOO B. C.J wu I bus lakijig place fluxing the JinL genera¬ 
tion of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The internal ion ji I alignment 
fefei the new* pe*k»d Vrry different frasi that of thi* Early Iro]i Agr. 
The revival nf Eyyptm:u putref ftlturt Lived, though rrlatuns viilh 
EiO'pl ttmliftttwi to i»c an important political factor, cspeeuillv for 
Judah. The main probji'in Ell PtdcrcmUninl relation* fnr the two Hebrew 
kingdoms however, aside from Uwfr varying Hut ion to rich other, 
vfai for some lime lhe relation of both to ihv new Anutwirtn kingdom 
nf Dudahus, which hod risen on one corner of the muu nf 
empire. Archeology has thus fir thrown little if any new light on this 
silualioh, though inscriptions naming same of the kiitg* of Damascus are 
known. Within half a century of the beginning uf she Middle Iron Age. 
however, the dmd might of Assyria began to bo fell ill the west. We 
have *eeh Hint the find ™ct t\A\r in biblical Hilary in provided by an 
Assyrian fctcription £ . Tram then mi Ihj the dosing decades of the 

period the A^ynan empire overshadowed anil dominated Hie life of 
western Asia. 'Hie chief archeological source* fox Ihr history «f this 
period are furnished hy Hie Assyrian royal wdptW- 

In the middle of the ninth century Israel, under Alkali, combined 
with other kings So resist the cRenoarhmen Is of Assyria (§ 0^). A fevf 
ynfi Inter; however, hm^l and Judah joinul hands Danm*cU« 

(I Kkglft), which at this lime held Ranuthgihml in Transjordan. In 
undertaking thi* MnjULign Ahab may have believed that tht more 
remote Assyrian peril hid been averted; if so, hr til badly mist*Leu, 
and in any cam- the expedition proved fatal to him. The achievement inf 
independeiiei- fram Israel by Mouh at about this time. nr [w-rhapi the 
repulse of an attempt by Israel Ms regain control afire losing it. is 
celebrated in the insctiplkm of Mrsha + IKi- Moabite king (§ 1B7). 
Shortly thereafter Edom also revolted from tbr kingdom of Jmlah (£ 
Kings Further struggles with Damascus ensued. including an 

lihbJctmful siege of Samaria by the Syrians Kings and 

another ewblncd campaign against Ramolh gilrad by the kings c>r 
Judah and UimI fi Kings fcflM). TKe latter enterprise gave the 
occasion for Jeb.u K s usurpation of t he throne of [irael (tf Kings fl) + 

At this Juncture the Assyrians apeared again oO the wrc. Shalmaneser 
III penetrated to the short of the Mcdilerrom an at the mouth of wharf 
is now called Dog Haver, whirre a rack-out relief with nfi uucriptUin still 
cumnieinoratw hi* triumph. We have noted that hii hbiek obelisk 






IVIUT TEDE ST^Ma? 


(IIIT-B? 


m 

ihow^i Jehu paying homage mn& tribute to him, and that this occasion 
tin our second definite date kit Old Testament history (5 03). 
Feriuips st was resentment at t3ui submission to Assyria which led. 
Hnzacl of iJaeinifUi. wdio had unsuccessfully resisted Shalmaneser, to 
attack Jrhu and wml from him all the remaining Unitary of Israel 
rail of the Jordan (J Kings lDr$Sf). A little later H**ad invaded the 
Philistine plain and set hia fact to go tip to Jerusalem," 1 and Joash, 
who was then on the throne of Judah, had to buy Kirn off with the 
treasure wh kh had accumulated in the temple during the pnr-crNdEn g 
r- iiri‘- if Kirks 1£:]i f}, lend m humiliated lay Hai;ad and hi* son 
Henhadnd UimiLKhnut thr reign of Jehu and Jehpahai, but Jehoash, who 
pirbL’ to the throne at about the beginning of the eighth century, 
"■gained the ascendancy (fi King* l$;f£). And bow qkh more an 
Assyrian a my invaded Syria, ami Palestine. The petty kings of 
Phoenicia. Edom, and FhiLtotia, ** well ms brad, paid tribute*. as we 
learn from the Assyrian record of the rampaign. They wet* (probably 
only loo gtail to welcome Assyria u a deliverer from the oppmua of 
the Aramrin klngi of Damascus; at any rate, for some time after the 
Assyrian army withdrew, the kingdom of Damascus was loo weak to 
«u*r trouble for its neighbor*, 

Th. Thr long and prosperous reigns of Jeroboam 11 in Jinipl and 
Llrziah (Aurlah) in Judah, ^vriilig approiEmately the firet half of 
thr eighth rrnlury, reflect the security afforded by the humiltiiUon nf 
Damascus and the respite from Assyrian invasion. Not until 73S, our 
third freed ilafcc iti biblical history, did another Assyrian emperor, 
Tiglath Filracr fll. invade hnd and take tribute from Mrcui^m, as 
he did frotn many other ruler* alto (*! Kings 15: 30 f) _ In the biblkal 
account of this invasion the name of TigUlh Fifeser is contracted to 
Pul. lie iu Bitneliims nthi FuIll in the cuneiform tourers nLso. From 
this lime nn events moved swiftly to the end of the kmgdnjn of Israel. 
Only three years after hlenahem’i Hibmmba Prkah, who had kilted the 
ton of Mennhcm and seized the throne. joined an an ti-Assyrian league 
with Rex in of Damascus and s group of PWnkiin, PhilUtinr. aud 
Edomite rulers. Ahil of Judah refused to join this coalition, whereupon 
Eeein and Pckah EelhJ siege to Jerusalem. Li spit* of the efforts of the 
prophet Isaiah to bolster up has courage (Isaiah 7:1-1*}, Ahai took 
fright and appealed to Tiglalh PiJtscr fop aid, sending him tribute from 
the temple and palace treasures, and of course the Assyrian emperor 
was only too glad to come and liberate the oppressed kingdom of 
Judah. Damascus was taken, its, territories laid waste, and its king put 


iH w) 


4EFEIUL OHIEVTATION 


m 


to death, bringing to an. end the Aramean kmgd(»n whtnh had been 
since the dayi of Solomon the most farmkliblc rival of law), hrmd 
Jiito m w put to tribute, and a new king wa* placed on the throne it 
Samaria. TitftfltK Pilrser rays that he made Hosbei king because the 
people of lira?! bad overlhnciiv n Pekah (BAB 4fl4 f; 4 King* . 

In placing Hoahe* on the throne of Israel, Tiglath Fit«wr doftbtkn 
hoped that hr would be a loyal vassal to Assyria, After paying tribute 
for a while, however, to Tiglaih Pitrscr and his succetior, Shalmaneser 
V, IfoshrA fulfftij into a conspiracy with Egypt and withheld flora 
Assyria hia annua] tribute. Shalmaneser thereupon invaded Itnrl and 
befiirgrd Samaria. The liege lasted three years, and the city was not 
taken until the first year of the IW1CI Assyrian emperor, Sargon II. In 
two different inscription* Sargon led* of carrying off *7.490 people 
from Samaria; in one of them he says that he brought in jM*ople from 
other conquered In nth. making the population greater than before 
i BAB iflS f; tp- i King* \T 44). 

79. Meanwhilr Hm-kinh hud sueererird Aha* in Jitdnh. A reformer 
in rrtigiofi, he tv** also independent in hi* relation! with Assyria. 
Sennacherib, who had followed Sar^on on thr .Assyrian throne, found 
it necessary to Invade Judah and compel Hestekiali to pay tribute. 
Jerusalem itseir mi threatened, and Sennacherib, in his own boastful 
account of the «-ptsodi\ rayi of H«ckiah, ” Him I shut up like a caged 
bird ip Jerusalem, his capital. 14 Sennacherib's inscription adds much 
to what we know from the narrative of the same cVcOli in I lie Bible 
(S Kings 18 f). 

It i< tntouting to note that Sennacherib had a Palestinian wife, as 
Is ihnwrn by her name,, Narpya-Zaiutu. The first part of this name 
means 4 ‘ pure " in Hebrew, and the second part is limply ib Akkadian 
equivalent, This ^oman. had a great deal of influence over Sennacherib 
and his successors, Esarhaddon and Ashurtpanipal. 

Under the two etnperoft just named the power of Assyria reached 
its climax, hfanaasrh. the son of flcrckiab, is Palmed in up inuti^tioh of 
Esarbaddon along with many other tributary kings of we Mem Awu 
Prbhahly he continued Lo pay tribute 10 Asburbaoipal, though noeslant 
inseriplfcOQ of this empenM name* him. The Bible pictures Manassc-h 
*4 4 wicked king, who practised pagan file* even in tb* tempt* at 
Jrruraleta (4 Kings 41: L-S), Again disloyalty to the God of Israel 
accompanied subsert wHfJ'' to foreign rulers. 

While aU this »-« going on, Egypt waa not entirely out of the picture. 
Even before the fall of the kingdom of Israel Egyptian influence had 




ID* WHAT MEAJf TFFW JfTQjm? (lit) 

bcm n( wnrk. fomenting pbU igniml Assy™ in the Philiitiae. Fhocnj- 
(db, and Hebrew kingdom*. During Hesekiiih's fvign Isaiah had nil 
he could da to pnjrve&l the kingdom of Judah from being dra w n into 
Ibese conspiracies iImuiEl i.l; 30;1^: SP-fo3); in fa cl, lie did not 
altogether succeed, far the revolt of the Philistine Mm in which 
Hcrekkh wa* involved, and which bnmght upon him lb? wrath of 
Sennacherib, was made, ml »c learn from SennOChtriVi inscription, with 
the ikf of Egyptian Soldier* and chirnb E»rtn4tka attempted the 
oooqucat of and AshurbanjpaJ accomplished it. For about It 

decade, jlttt Wore the middle of the fftvcnth century, Egypt #ai a 
province of Aasyria. 

But thu stale of affairs not lo continue tong, During the reign 
of Anhurbanipal the rliniM of Assyria** power was Hot only readied; it 
was passed. The Egyptian prince, Psanimc l ichua, who had governed 
Egypt as viceroy for the Assyrians, revolted and **t up a new dyiwsiy. 
the XXYIth. In the attempt to assert hi* authority over southern 
Palestine PwiptnPlichuA besieged the Philistine city of Md«l for 
twenty -nine year*, The Greek hEitorian Herodotus. who lelli III of it, 
considered this the longest siege in history, Shortly before the drath of 
AlhurUnipiL which occurred in B-C T western Asia w*j overrun 
by hortfon of the barbarous Scythians from Lhe north. According to 
Hcfodolua, they advanced through Syria and Palestine, but were slopped 
at Aubkebn by Fummctichu* and overwhelmingly defeated- No con 
ftnttaLiuu of this story ha* hern found La cantclnpomry sources (JBL 
1HQ. 34H 1% At any mte, Assyria from thii lime on had 0ttk or no 
power in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, Two short 
reigns followed lh*t of Aahurbantpil, but they were po*crictt, 

Scon after the death of Aahurbanipol a new, independent government 
W4JI set up in Babylonia by the Chaldean Nabo^lu^i [6i5 B. C-) - 
like Pftiinmctiehus. he had been Bering pJ viceroy for Assyria before 
hU revolt. This was the beginning of the Chaldean or Neo-Babylonian 
empire. Mean while the Medea, a formidable adversary of Awyria ao 
the do nth east, bad formed a united kingdom Against the combined 
assaults of lhe Ch*hlean»< Medea, and Scythians the Assyrian empire 
could no longer ataod. In fll* B,C, Eta capital, Nineveh, wa* taken. 
Egypt, ffl the person of Nftb. the successor of huhmelifKm. under- 
took to check the rising power of the Chi (draft*. Advancing through 
Palestine, Nechu was mel at Megiddo by Joriah. king of Judah, but the 
encounter Wai fatal for Josiah. Jehoahaa. whom the people enthroned, 
waa removed by Nee ho and his brother Jcboiakim put in his pU« (« 




UXKiKAL ORIENTATION 


m 


MiM-SS) A few years taler, at CHc3«niih ofl the Euphrates. 
Nccho was dtfcsled by N'abopolassar's aim, Nftiitehliiwur (wjhc 
tlcnr - called NtbiidLadutiiar in die fiibte), who wm rmmediittely there¬ 
after recalled to Rnbylon by the news cif his father's death. Thtii in OOJ 
B. C. Nehuehfl.Elp , f7nr iM^calne the ruler of a new wiurld-rntpirr, He 
lost no time in as-Herting Hi) poorer in Palestine, riflkin^ lehoiakim hi? 
vustL 

SO. With the HCl-JiI ruction of the Assyrian empire and Hie establish¬ 
ment of ike N*n-Babylonian smpiw throughout all western Alia we 
reach the end of the Middle Inm Age. I| wu a period of far-reaching 
changes, not only in political relationship* hut also in social and econ- 
nomie life. The dev etopment of commerce and lad ua| ry h begun under 
Solomon toward the end of the Early Iron Age, advanced apace 
(§£ |]£ fj Thr . -.^Htkally driaocratic nociat order of ancient Israel 
became transformed into - complex system like that which prevailed 
in ndghburing nations. The economic; organization and exploit*linn of 
Khc country in Ike interests of the rulers, noted alrrady ih the reign of 
Solomon, was by no means ended by the dividim of the kingdom. The 
OUtrmcs found at Samaria i;§i7) r consutmg largely of lax receipts or 
jnriiirjnLnda h reveal something of the fiscal organization of the kingdom 
of brad in the eighth century. The jtn#s of tk* lax-dbtrkla indicated 
by the place-names in these mends arc quite independent of the old 
divUioni of tribe and clan. A similar new firganiiatioft into districts is 
attested in Judah also by the stamped jar-handka which read ^for the 
king;' w-rlh the name of one of four cities (Hebron, Kill*4 Socbo P and 
hUuwhath). ]| would Stem tkal the royal UXCt wefr paid in kind 
(oil and Wine), using jars of a standard oixt with the official, stamp nf 
the fiscal district, indicated by its chief city. These standardized 
measures m*y also have served as a kind of currency (4 117). 

The incmisr of wraith meant luxury fnr * favored f™, but a wider 
separation between rich and poor. Class eiinscioiup^ and a sense of 
oppression were the natural consequence Il«w far conditions were 
worse than Ut earlier times, and bow far Eke attack* of the great eighth 
century prophMi (how rather an increase of moral sensitive ness* u hard 
lc» tell, but the growth of a wealthy class at the egpenwr of the small 
landowner and farmer, with much injustice and exploitation, is dearly 
indicated. With all lhr*c developments, however, the Social order still 
remained primarily agricultural {§115). For p*o&t of the population 
living randikoni were (till rather primitive, though thr excavation of 




10* 


VYHAT HJLaN TtCEMC 


[|| no-0L^ 


»«eh h JlKkr.ll city « T>cbir (Tell Beit Mimm) d»W* ti.t thfe hom« 
Ikad belter ttaitw* arrangement* than in found id the Arab vi ages 
to^y, *nd it has been pouted out that the sanitary tew* ol the Old 
Testament point lo a higher standard than l»w prevails ™^8 
aativri of Weatine outside of Hie cltifi (AAPllT). A* regards t e 
lcvd culture id lhb period w* n»y M the development 
in thr art of writing shown by the seals and jlT^iandk* the Moibrtfl 
Stotte, the SjImihi imeription. and iht nstraca of Samaria and Lachlih 
( 41 ^ 1 ). the arfcistk excellence of some of the seals (|W)t aod ™ 
jiWKTfs* of Mchiimurc .&d majortfy cvidenl *t tuch pkea M Simctl* 
jluJ Mrgiddo 1.5 91) - Albright hd lem.rkrd that trliile tie pkttiC 
.rt cxrmpliSrd by ibe ' AlUrts figurines ’ d[ tfeU period f| 1*1) aetm* 
eradr to iu, it i* not inferior lo the archmic Creek art of lint lint 
iAAP )£S) 

The Middle Iran Age was the period of the first great Hebrew 
prophets. Elijah and Elisha lived it! the ninth century B.C, and both 
tfrre vitally concerned with the political condition* at ibeir lime. The 
fmreiaKc nf Ahab and the Phoenician princess Jexebd Waa immediately 
respniuiblc for the Conflict which Elijah had to wage against the wor¬ 
ship of the Tynan Baal, Melqirl- Eibha look a hand in the internal 
pqjjtic* vt Syria u well u of Iirael. fomenting the revolutions of Harae! 
and Jehu- In the following; century Amw and Knsea preached io the 
norihem kingdom. liaiah H in Jowkuv lived through the crtieUI event* 
of the Assyrian perkd, the kingdom of Israel destroyed and Jeru¬ 
salem threatened by Assyrian armies. and strove to influence Aha* and 
Hrzekiah. more suecMsfully in the latter caM than in the former- Mkah 
loo was ■ man of thii time Toward the end of the period, in the late 
seventh century. Zcphanuih appeared, and the long* tragic ministry of 
Jeremiah begin. The Assyrian records, making clear and vivid the 
developments of these centuries in international affairs, have given IU a 
much more accurate and just understand mg of the 034 Testament 
prophet! than was formerly possible {{ IW)* 

81. The transition to the Late lion Age (Iroh III, B.CJ 

look place ns the Neo-Babylonian empire of Nrbuchadrezw was being 
consolidated. The kingdom of Judah, after vacillating between a policy 
of sub miss ton lo Babylon and ofle of alliance with Egypt agamsL the 
Chaldeans, m destroyed early in thi* period, Jeholikim r who had 
become a v«sh 3 of Nebuchadreitar after the latter defeated N«ho at 
CarehEmiib, nfadled after three yean and died: just in time to avoid 


(■MU 


cemeuL cmirsiATtyy 


107 

bring Ulren captive- by Nebuch*dre£itar- Hi* »n. Jeboiaehin. lu^hd 
Lhi* fftk in SOT. after rtigning only tW month*, ^'(irkiah held the 
throne for more Lius ■ decade, though uncertain aod Lniimrere in his 
aHrgiui.ee to Nrbitrliadrrzur. Yielding to the 1 kmpktioo yv h n h had 
bwii so fatally ittndivr to hi* pinhSMor?^ jirf)l4j»s beCAUu* Egypt 
was 45 much nearer than Babylon, he j( ln£t rebelled. only to have hi* 
kingdom laid waste mid Jerusalem deftreyedl (Stf# H C.). 

Thus began the Babylonian calk, which tasted fur half a century. 
The leaders of the tuition wrre earned captive to Babylon, « Jrhotadnn 
and many of his nobta had been dev** year* earthr, Many of the tilie* 
of Judah were dettroyed and not rebuild a* has been shown by exca¬ 
vation at Aztfcah. Both'themash, and Kii-uiib-rephef, and by surface 
axaminiituin elsewhere- At Liehish evidence of two dfaUrurtams not 
far apart tuis been found; undoubtedly they are to be attributed to 
Ncbududrtmr'a invasions of MT and B. C- tb now fatnoiw 
Ijichish. letters were found in kite debris from the second uf these 
destructions <TLL *04; PEQ 1B3S, U1 f). 

Nebuchadrezzar ruled for nearly a quarter of a century nflrr the 
drltrurtklti of Jerusalem, Mia reign Was one of continual lighting and 
COnqur 4 t, but *1*0 of much building in Babylon. His auectoar, Awil 
Manful: i Evil-hUrediicL). reigned only two years, but fur Old Testa¬ 
ment bistnty he u notable because he releASed Jeboiachin from prison 
and kept him as a permanent and compulsory guest of I he eourt at 
Baby ton (1 Kings *5:87-30; see { 1»1) T After two more brief reigns 
Nabuua'id was pfaced on the throne by * conspiracy of the priests. 
Noted for his piety and for bi± interest kit the pa at. NabunVid we m s Eo 
have left the actual administration of \m government largely to his son 
Belshazzar (£j IBB). During this time the kingdom of the Modes fell 
into the hands of Cyrus, an able nder who Within a few years defeated 
the proverbially wealthy CttWIiji, lung of Lydia, and gained control of 
the Greek colonies of Aii* Minor. In &M-& he moved south Against 
Babylon, which, as his own inscription and a Babylonian record inform 
us, %*s delivered without opposition mlo the hands of his general 
Gobty** (BAB 401, 4SS). 

Thus within two generaMow after the beginning of the Late Iron 
Age a new Persian empire had preceded the powerful but short lived 
empire of the Chaldeans, and the Babylonian captivity of the Jews was 
over. Only a few of the euiles actually returned, however, and the** 
Wore not too well received hy those who had meanwhile conic to regard 



m 


WIIAT MLA!H STONEH? 


ell *l •*? 


Prdertine ihcir own. and who dblabtleM nn-Eisidered *uch people m& 
K*rn nioddVinfliE stmwrs. Calftbyses, the *ue«»5ur of Cyrus, added 
J£gyp( lo the Prttkn empire. Darius. who followed him in $** ll-C.. 
hmi to contend with several insurrection* alhi did not fully establish 
hh mV for several years. Thai high hope* of mdependealX Wffi cher¬ 
ished by Ihr JeWI »l then jimrture is suggested by the prophecies of 
Hji^iiJ h um I ZrcturLak. The temple was rebuilt. but a ll bop* of an 
impendent Option under a kii^ of David'* line was dialicd by the 
firm and effective- government of Darius 

In ihi* fwKud bibLiml history bvfpn* lo have contacts with the history 
uf Europe- It urns Dnnfti wfcw invasion of Green was repulsed by the 
bottle of Marathon, Hi* fuce*uor h Xrnre*. repeating the attempt, was 
dcFeaieii al Salami*. PlaUe*. and Myrtle, and from that lime on the 
VwTi't'kn took l he offeuiro in their Persian Wars. Arlucnrn L «** able 
lo rfii*h a rebellion in Egypt bul again** the Greeks ™ Iris auortuful. 
In the Incnlielh yew of his reign, (4+S B-C) Nebemiah **i rent to 
JmuaVm af ^vtmr and rebuilt the walls of the city. Whether Ezra 
weul in thr leventh year of this Artajcenei and therefore preceded 
Neheiuiah, n t vihrlher he Wful umi^r Artaserses II, sixty year* inter, 
b not certain, but the Salter alternative «*nu more probable ({&!}- 

The KuemMin of Arlaxmfrt 11 were relatively bttitfipoTiuL In a 
struggle M*™ two bred hem for the ihronc at the end of the fifth 
century a Greek army VM left stranded near Babylon by the death of 
the prince for whom it hjui been fighting. The auemsfu! retreat uf I he 
Tea ThnuAdiTiil through Mrjoptitmnui and Armenia tu the Black Sea, 
** narrated by une of their leaden, Xenophon,, in hw AndboaM. did much 
lo reveal to thr Greek* the st^eicm Into which the Fenian empire 
had fallen. Two generations later the empire «nt£ lo 4ft muL 

hi. In some ways Iron III is one of I he tnert ob«ure periods in 
Palestinian history- hinny important di*oovrrk^ P however, help tu dtf- 
pel the darkness The general cultural tiid^uml of the (H-riffll i* illus¬ 
trated by the oantiofii of 5u*a And Fencpotb and the c*4lrm part 
of the empire. Business tablets oF thu period iliwovpmi at Nippur in 
Babylonia show that many Jrti were living at Chat place and playing 
all important part in the economic bfo nf Ihr community, The Elephant 
tine papyri have given aotne information regarding prominent, mdi- 
viduah in P 4 i^tinc in the time nf NcksaUi and Efti. including San- 
b&tht, Ihr Kiivmior. and his Uo nous, FaVatlnc alio has yielded a 
growing amount of materiaL. A and a palace of the Persian 


KINEHAL OftnKaTATTdrt 


iifai 


t05i 


period have been found At Lachish above the latest pre-exilie level, 
Buildings Ukd tombs of this period have been rivaled it othrr piano 
also. An intponuil fact which hm riti*rK«i in recent years is that Gwk 
influence did not find make itself frit in Pnl^tirn with Alexander the 
Great. Eli pottery and in coins it a* evident in thr fourth and even the 
fifth century. 

From the economic point of vrw the perrc*! aeem* to h*ve lw*;n, m 
fur *i Palestine is conetrowL one of gradual rettery from the desola¬ 
tion caused by invasion and war. Ai the northern part of the country 
had suffered from th^ dnLructioii ol the kingdom of Israel in the preced¬ 
ing period, so now the southern part suffered from the destruction of the 
kingdom of Judah, and ad the more because repeated mvaikmi were 
necessary to subdue the refractory kings. Even the- restored community 
under the Fcrna* empire was small and wreak as compared with the 
pre-eiihc kingdom- HaRgai and other Old TejUmrnl writer* allude to 
crop-fatlu rei and famine Aflrr nearly a century of PcttUn rule 
Ncbemiah bund the walls of Jerusalem in nflins. 

Toward the end of the period, however. conditions aeem to have 
grown better* The Phoenician cities enjoyed not a little prosperity and 
extended their influence ifl Palestine by coloniiation » well as trade. 
The evidence of Greek influence which ha* already been noted indicates 
at the - r -* 1 * n# ' lime comTnrlriw-l activity, for it was by the way of trade 
that Greek wares came to Palestine before Alexander's conquest and the 
colonLretiau which followed it. 

Culturally as well u economically Palestine suffered front the fall of 
the southern kingdom, and the "restored community wa-i too poor and 
weak to produce great art or architect tire. The new temple was doubt - 
leva only a poor copy of Solomon^ though probably incorporating many 
of the stones from, its rUPlwu Sn Babylonia, IP be sure, the rxilea became 
more closely acquainted than ever with Babylonian culture., and Old 
Testament scholars have often surmised that much Babylonian influe nce 
came into Hebrew religion and Literature through this ratitKL On the 
whole it now seems that this idea has been exaggerated, especially in 
view of the widespread knowledge of Babylonian civilization throughout 
western Asia in much earlier periods. 

In one aspect of culture at least, the Persian period was by DO means 
■ barren one for the Hebrews. Much of the finest literature in the Old 
Testament comes bin this time, and there was undoubtedly a great 
body of secular Literature which has nut been preserved. The Etfphan- 


no 


WHAT itfcAK THJEE* tfToKBS? 


Ctl M-li 


line papyri confirm what would cVeffl without them be highty 

prahnhk tha t literature* «p«^% of the 41 Wildfflll K type irpreSenfctd 
by the story and proverbs of Abitar. was cultivated in Lhe Feraiati 
empire to a high ikgree. %E^lcioL for the cultural hfe of the 
lew* u the fact that Aramaic, by this time the language of trade 
and diplomacy throughout wolml A*ia P became fto* the language of 
the Jewish people too. more and mar* replacing Hebrew in everyday 
lift 

83. The classification of archeological period* ba terms of the metals 
used for weapon* and implements is not carried beyond Iron III, being 
no longer useful. 5ub--equeni periods are commonly classified acCofdlpg 
to the dominant political power in the Mcdfterranean area and leUrffl 
Asia, With the cnnqunt of Alexander begins the Hehcnistic period, 
which extend* to the uuKulion of Palestine by Rome (S3 B. C,), The 
Hblory of this period is complicated and confusing. After Alexander'* 
death there was a struggle among hr* genrmh for the control of hi* 
empire- bur Palestinian history the molt important of the contenders 
wm Ptolemy and SeEtucui. The former held Egypt from the begin¬ 
ning; the latter ante into control of Babylonia « few year*, after Ala- 
under"* death but wsa driven out by one of the other generals,, regain- 
inn possession after a decisive battle at Gaza in 3H B. C. This dale 
marks ihe beginning of the Selcudd era,. used in Syria add Palestine 
down into the Roman period After Ihe bat Hi? of Usun in 3fll B, C, 
Srlcucus and hii successors, known as the Sdrueidac r held Syria. 

Palestine remained, cicept for a few intriruplinns. a part nf the 
territory of Ptolemy and hss descendant* for a period of more than a 
hundred yean, corresponding almost exactly to Lhe third century (501- 
1SH. B. C.). At the end of this lime it was captured by the Sdeurid 
niltT Ant inch us III, called lhe Great. For wntr years Lhe Syrian king* 
favored, the Jews, but the affairs or the kingdom *rJt ttp triplicated by 
disputes and revolt*, and the Jewish high prirtb played politic* quite 
nnscrupuleuriv with the various contender* for the throne. The efforts 
of the kings to introduce Greek customs and culture, moreover, while 
enthusiastically received by many or Lhe Jewish priests and aristoovti, 
*:tc doggedly opposed by the more conservative dement of the people. 
A struggle, at the same time cultural, and religious, ensued,. reaching 
til Climax in the endeavor of Anliodm* IV (Epiphant*) to destroy the 
Jrwi*h faith by persecution. Tim provoked thr Maorabcu revolt (IBS 
B, C.), as a result of which the Jews gradually regained their indrpen- 




GEKMAL VhlEKrATlOK 


111 


dence, mill for nwt^ a century had onw more ft kingdom of their catt¬ 
ily Lh^ rliU uf that time, hoWcVrr, the kiniidihEtL had so deteriorated that 
Ihc Raman* were talk’d in to settle n quarrel between two brothers for 
the lhro«i«, and Piinipcy, who hid junl made Syria a Bo man province, 
Look pos*easion «f Pftk-stint also. 

Mutlk of ihi* bi recorded in literary *ourct$, indudinjt Lb first And 
second hooks of Maccabees And Ihc htiL&rw of Josephus, but Lb infor¬ 
mation given by these is checked and suppleniented mi many points 
by a r theological evidence, especially ifueriplktU and: coins. EacaVfl- 
Eton? a! several places have uncovered remain* of the Hellenistic period. 
Particularly worthy uf Htt among the Hellenistic sites excavated m 
Falrstinr are Mnriva (Tell SaEnlaliannah}, Ektb-xur, Bethel, ntid 
Samaria, though at the hut FWUiwd place little was left of the lleltr-n- 
istie city by the Mrr builder* of th* Homan period. Most illuminating 
of all I hr arthiolnsiftil itoupees in the numerous papyri found in Egypt, 
|irwnling at firpi hind and in copsiderabte detail the conditions and life 
of thr timi-.v Among ibw three is an especially important group of 
tloeti incut* from thr archives of jiel Egyptian official named Zeno, of 
the time of Ptolemy II (Phikdelptausl, who reigned from In £46 
ll.tr. These Zrna papyri, as they are called, are frequently concerned 
with Palestine; in fact one of them is a letter from Tobias, the governor 
of Ammon* doubtless a descendant of Ncbcmtah'j for, w Tobiah the 
tt-rvanE, the Ammonite ” (Nehemiah «:10 eU.), 

Hi- The ititerprartfilion of Greek and Oriental culture* is the chief 
wdhl pheimmenun of this period. We have seen Greek influence appear¬ 
ing awn before the time of Alexander the activities just noted meant of 
course that this influence was much intensified. The eclectic but fairly 
uniform civilization which developed throughout western Asia and the 
McdiilrrTaFican area through these contacts is commonly designated by 
the lefftt Hellenistic, in contmdislinction to the Hellenic or purely Greek 
civilisation. In Palestine, and only there it seems, there was a strong 
reBCLkoit against the Ifelleuiimg movement, which seemed to conserva¬ 
tive Jc*s to nrn counter Id all the traditions of their fathers and to 
Imperil lilt ancient heritage of Israel. The conflict which ensued, u we 
have already seen, brought in its train persecution. revolt, and finaUy 
indcpeudePre, though the period ended with the loss of that imSc- 
pendrnce. 

While of great importance for future history, and particularly Cor 
the ipmd and development of Christianity. the IhlkniuLton of the 


WHAT MEA* TIIEdt aTX>NEa? 


Ill 


112 

Orient wu rather imperficiaL Outside of tSir luftr c\tir> it whs hardly 
felt. *ntf *veu there it did not profoundly *ff«t the bulk of the native 
population. The Greek colonist* llwmsdvt* were probably inure affected 
by liie Semitic life of the Aramair speaking pwples of Syria B*d Fale*- 
(jur than Uia Utter were by Greek civilisation. m spite of suif*« indi¬ 
cation* to the contrary The pfffirtw* of Uh; native language* and 
callurra is wHS lUuJilrmled by the fact that many cities which wi-re 
given Greek jwmrs in I hi* period are known today by thrir mirifsit 
Semitic names Tim was not t#U* E verywhere Nrapulis is no* Nablus, 
and Tripoli* wTarahlus. But Ralrtuith-Anunofl, though renamed Fhila- 
.yphia by the Q rreka, is now 'Amman; Bethdiran, renamed 5cythi> 
pdis, ia now Beiwo; Accho (Akko). renamed Ptokmais, ia no®- called 
Akka I Acre); ami Grbnl, renamed Byblos, still b»rs its old Semitic 
I Lame in the Atibfc form Jebeib 

At the time new cklHStl and condi malbn-i were undoubtedly 

introduced into the cultural patiem, even for tbr Jews. The many 
thousands of Jews living outside of Palestine* of course, were most 
affected. The Jews of Egypt found a Greek tronsLatkm af dm Old Testa¬ 
ment itself Httnsary. add included in it several books, aome of them 
composed originally in Greek Bind showing definitely the influence of 
Greek thought. Even in Jerusalem there was a strong IlelltKliaLit move¬ 
ment bm the establishment of the Marc&btni* kingdom meant a victory 
fgf conservatism and a corresfpoftdi-ng setback foe Hellenistic culture. 
The Mice*bean coins pft inscribed m Hebrew instead of Greek, even 
uaing a deliberately archaic form of the Hebrew alphabet instead of the 
square Aramaic character* -which had Idiij; since become customary. 

F 15. lYith the Roman period, wfckb witnessed the birth of Christianity, 
the growth and. spread of thr church. and the writing of the New Testa¬ 
ment, the field of our Interest r*p«mta far beyond the borders of PslrS- 
tine, including a greater territory than at any other time since the age 
of the patriarchs, The whole history, both political and eidlnral, of the 
dying Roman republic and the young empire, with their provinces, ia 
the background of New Testament history. Mere arebsjlogical material 
ji abundant, Greek and l*Btin inacrtplkuM, milestone*, coins, and even 
buildingH in a belter itatc of prcwnli&n than those of any earlier 
period are available for itody, Uut to mention statuary and other works 
of art. 

When Ppmpey look possession of Judaea, he made it a part of the 
new Roman province of Syria The Greek cities, which had been sub- 


tl m 


CDTEUL DaiOTATlOX 


113 


jy gaird by the JewtHb kin^g. were restored to their fui'mrt iintus ufne 
cities. Naturally Ibty looked on Pflmpfj ns Sheir ijrlivt'ftf, *d4 uumy 
of their inscription;! date events, not by the cm of the SdeUtid kingdom 
(from 3If E. C.), u hitherto, bul by the new era of their indfprt^rmr. 
beginning with 6$ ft C- At some time early m the Etonuu prrurd. ten 
of Lhcoc cities Poftiied a league known as the Drcapalbj to wliitb other 
cities Were added Jailer- One of the group. Scytbopolb ! Eefh ■ stiefth), 
was above the Jordan River to the west, in the plain of J«ml; nil the 
other* were eiut or Jordan. Sly far the best preserved is Gerusa i.lrrash), 
excavated by Rnglbb and American archeologists in the years IM‘54- 
There were other Greek cities along the coast, from Ftolrmab fAcic) 
down to Gaea, 

In 40 B, C. S jrm. and Pkbtinr were invnulcd by the 1'nriiuiu, the 
most formidable enemies of the Roman? Hi the mt In the ^stie year 
the Roman senate recognized as king of tK>- Jews tile fdumrjin Herod, 
son of a shrewd politician named Antipin Let, who had become lb fril 
power behind the throne during the last days of the Moevatwan kisig- 
dora. Only after a struggle of three yearn win Herod able to grl rofitM 
of his realm, but thereafter, by assiduously cultivating the favor of the 
men successively in power at Rome (Cassius,, Mark Antony, and Augus¬ 
tus) + as Well ms by his quite unscrupulous but very able administration, 
he kept the reins of government in bis hands. During bii reign the 
Roman republic came to an end, and the Roman empire was established 
by Augustus. 

At the death of Herod, bis kingdom was divided among three of his 
sons. Arch elans, to whom Judaea was b^uealfnu!, was d gjw ed m 6 
A_D.. and thereafter Judaea wli ruled directly by Roman procurator*. 
Herod Anri pas governed Galilee and Perea (east of the Ionian} until 3D 
A.D.. hU fuEr thus inrEuding the whole time of Jesus* ministry, Mean¬ 
while Augustus Wax succeeded by Tiberius (14-37 A.D.). Philip, who 
inherited the northeastern corner of Herod's kingdom,, died in 34 A. D. 
The emperor Caligula (3T-II A, D.) pvt Philip's territory to Agrippa, 
a drsecndanl both of Herod and of the Maccabcan kingv two years 
Uter Antipas was banished, and Galilee and Perea were given to Agripp*. 
Claudius (41-5+ A. D.) added Judaea also, so that far a few yean 
Agrippn reigned over the whole realm of Herod the Great, like Herod 
the Great and Antipas; Agrippa b called simply Herod in the New 
T^Ument; it is hb death in 44 A. D. which u described in Arts l|:f[hS3. 


II* 


WHAT MRAff Tll£3£ STOSia? 


til *«> 


After lbi> ]*il«tiric WU again governed by Homan procurator*, wbo*e 
opprr^ivr measures aU^nl great bilUmtii. It ^ju during this tim* 
tbit Paul's miadonjiry Work was done. According Ld tradition, both hr 
and Peter were put to death muter Nen* (AA-08 A- D.)^ In Lk year *3 
the ruing discontent in Palestine broke &ul mta revolt- The abk general 
Vespasian, sent to subdne tJ» ttbeiioa, win abtmt to besiege Jerusalem 
when hr heard of Nt»*l death- After tbe rapid m region of Galha, 
Qlho, and ViletldUp in one year* Vr»p<ujaii himself *M made emperor 
|,etD-7S* A. D-) . Thr *»ege of Jmisalom wax carried out by his »n Titus, 
who i& A- D. captured the city and destroyed the trmpk. Relief* 
caned oej the arch of Titus, st-ila standing near the Gokamn in Rom*, 
show the sacred vhk)i from Jerusalem b-rin^ fAiried in the triumphal 
ptMfjiion. Titus lurnttled hii father OS efliperor in TU A. D., after 
mining with him several years: ho «nS feUotcd two years later by 
Domilifiru after whims timt Nerva (EHH»H> and Trajan «PBdl7J. By 
the rod of Trajan's reign almost all the books of the Sew Testament 
liad been written. 1 

fid. All the di*t urhsitee* in Palestine must have ctnld much hard¬ 
ship. The period wax not, however* one of prevailing distress for the 
country as a whole. While nuy ancient ait#* were abandoned, new 
settlements sprang up along the great Roman funds add about the 
temp's and gnmKtDi. The Pas Roman* made possible extensive tradr, 
iu the interior ki well as cm the coast, Cities no longer needed to be 
walled nor to be situated on high hills; at several places, therefore, the 
old mounds were abandoned and new towns built in the valleys. This 
happened, for rtunple, at Legio brside Megiddo. a| Scythopdi* beside 
the ancient mound of Beth ihnn. and at Ncapolii, which then took the 
ptaee of Shectum, Aqueducts and reservoirs cneoumged agriculture 
l h rough the eounlfy. 

Extrusive building operations wtf? tamed on ij» r Herod the Great 
WflS *rry active in this respect, not only rebuilding tk temple at Jero- 
Salem in mapiiierhl style but also erecting a| other plarrs temples to 
[uiltno deities or to the emperor, not to mention palaces, theatres* and 
ball™. The Roman emperors also built pew towns and rebuilt older 
ones. Mnny nrrii i l eHiinil remain* attest the great activity of ihr period 
end (he rstcnl lo which the cities of Palestine became Romanised in 
plan and nppenmner (jto), 

1 < Prter u ww rnamjcmb dil4 ihnt 5 JO A D. 


4f «!.■ 


UESEfcAlH ClIUCSTATt^ 


ni 

lusl how much of the historical fnmcwprk sketched m the List few 
para pF -ntph* could be recovered from 4itli« | liipcal PfhlflK?, if "PC had 
Hd other wurcei, voqld be hard to »*y. For these liter periodi We 
actually have abundant literary sources the evidence of coins, 'uncrip* 
lion s s aftd other a rcheological material* is none the le** important for 
the critical study of the literary demlBlttiU IhcmsdvtS* and th«^ in 
lurti make possible a fuller and more itcuratt iulerpFrla tio d of the 
arehraklficaJ evidence Ilian could otherwise h« attained ^hat has been 
pif seoted heir, even though given only in broadest outlines, may suffice 
to show the service archeology has renders! biblical history by lying 
it into ita framework in world history connect inn it with the rise and 
fall of nations and their relationship* m* with another, afid orienting 
it to the outstanding movements and dcvrtopmeiils in the cultural and 
social history of mankind!. By the aid of archeology the study of the 
Bible ceases to be, as it were, suspended iu the air, afid geU lU feet 
upon the ground. 


Chajtkk JY 

MATERIAL AND SECULAR BACKGROUND 

ffl. The study of ancient -civiliwlioH ai reflected in its milerid 
remains not only Rives us a general orimtitkin in cultural history; it 
also provide* ih umt dcta.iL whit « known lci due mm tic parlance w 
H authentication ' When a nmtioh picture ilealing with a period in the 
pas? or with a foreign country fs to be produced, some effort u nude to 
Kdltt icenery. furnish lags, costumes and the itfcfi which will be true 
to the setting of the story, in ortfrt that the true flavor may be conveyed, 
and that informed spectators may IK& h* offended by glaring anachron¬ 
isms or inconsistencies. The finding* of archeology make possible such 
an ' au t hen ti cal ion ' of otir rr*4mg of the Bible, our reconstructinn of 
the situations and event* recorded ID iu and pur interpretation of many 
passages which presuppose- IhMe ailuatiou* and cannot be rightly under¬ 
stood apart from them, 

Tor one thing, archeology ufli us much about the bouses in whkb 
people lived in Bible limes. An adequate discussion of the architectural 
history of the ancient Near East in general and of Palestine In particular 
would be entirely beyond the present writer's competence; it would 
also lie largely irrelevant for the purpose of this book. Only in » far 
ai architectsral history affects the under*landing and evaluation of the 
Bible arc wo here concerned with It- A brief summary of what seem 
to be the outstanding points of architectural development as a phase of 
cultural history will be sufficient for ihu purpose, 

Palestinian archeology takes us far back beyond the limes when 
man made any buildings at ail. FaJcoUthk /VjJ-t li n th to jilt# Palt j 
lived in i cave, li did ibo his succeaun of the Mesolithic Age. Many of 
the inhabitant* of Palestine, indeed, have lived Ld cav« for at bast a 
part of the year in all periods down to the pmenl. As time wept on, 
however, the caves were sometimes artificially enlarged and elaborated. 
How scon men begin fo make bula of brush and reeds and mud w* can- 
tiot sny, because remain* of them have naturally not survived. 

In the Neolithic and Chikolilhk: ages, people evidently w m living 
not only in highland caves but alio in settlements in the plains, cequir- 
ing houses. In northern Mesopotamia, Indeed, u the excavation of Tep* 
Gnwim has shown, (here irai a well developed architecture by this time, 
even employing the arch. Palestine also hmi yielded Stone Age build- 

I Iff 


rt m 


MATERIAL A XU ffECVL-Ui fcUSMKW® 


11? 


i ag remains though hardly « fflnljonttc be- those of Tef* Gnwm IK* 
megdithic buddings of Trflflsjordfltt. eften ftllribnted lo the Vcdllhir 
period, have HOW Wn sWn to bdoa* *<* *be lmB ^ 

Eveti [hr (lolmrOir menhir*, and rrotttlvchs. fintml -vt mimy pllCft 
tin 11 % in Traiujordpn* may belong to n time ninth Later limn the Slone 
Age. In u Neolithic level at Jericho bhm, Gflntaag h** Totally 
discovered a rlav model of a tm* ilvupfd like ft beehive. SOU lower 

he found remain* of a building of the typo known *■ the mtpn* * 
It'ctjingn Ear hall with ail anteroom at »rw rad Opening oti a porch. 
There uere nt», one above another in Simla of the JiroUlhic arul Chal- 
coUthic ftfM, wvon phnsler IS^rs. rdddy (Ihumleii wilh ml paint and 
bumuhrd (dnubtles* by nabbing with alone implements) 

The Cfifttedithic city at Teleilnt cbtlhftHMit, ju*l north of the ITead 
Sen in I lie -birdftn valley* had house* of wtangillir ilmgM% one ->E the 
longer lid** often firi^ ft courtyard. M ill the prevailing type of I he 
efttlv BaL vloninii house The most it- markable fen I ore of Ihe*** 1 Iwilifi 
i* their mural decora lion, of which UiOfr bier (§ 131) ■ The oils wm 
of mud brick, some of them lift v mg faltuklkrai of UEVCot ilonc5 H rounded 
ns. though by the action of water, Altd therefore probably brought Fn»n 
ii nearby river-lied. Stone pavements w'ero found in sotneuf lbe*e Isouser 1 . 
The bricks were rudely made nnd feort many finger* infttk*- 1 Remain* 
of building* made of *inuLar brick*. wilh fLiscprs- of bWk beaten earth, 
hav^ been found by Sukenik in n Fihitcalithic ieltlflllPUt at Aflulrh in 
[he plain of EtdimeloU. 

At other places olw h including Lachish, Belli-shewn, and Mrgkkto. 
there is ibundnnl cvidchcc of t’lmtootithie towns nnd villages. In Hit 
earliest level of building nl Mvjtiddp \Stratum XX) have been fomtd 
remains of build ings Using bulb the nut ive rock a hd crude stone v nils. 
The nesl level {XIX) h nl the trftPfUk™ from ChaWtiibie to Early 
Branzc. has n Enrge building of mud brick on a Fooudnlimi nf one course 
of stones; this may. however, hurt hern a temple {§ I3H . At Kurnnb. 
soulheail of Beershcl>a h the arehculogU'wl survey -of Hie- PnU *lim Ftpkr- 
fttkrn Fund and the British School of Arebeokfiy has recently di^v^rd 
ad Eftriy Bronze or ChAloolithir settlement with an elaborate *yst<ni 
For water storage. At Hcdcmh. on the eoftft not far south of 3It. famirl, 
Sllkrnik found a few years ago oftstuMTfrt (i- e. chests For the bclir* of the 
dead) made of day in the Form of ft hmi» {JPOS smi. 15 ft}. They 

1 B*r™ Eluri I hr IlmtfiT- mij-*™iaiL *■ jJktwb Iff Witfllj 1 M Fr. 

*yy iatriKWd to Vrr tbr nrtrt*J " iPM^B IfL). 


rrorcia* 


(I ID 


UB WHAT UEAK TECCSt 

from ibc Amt half of the fourth luilLeu ium B. C, and show what a 
typical home of that region in the Chalculithie period looked like, ll 
had evidently a door at one end and three windows jo the other. The 
mils were decorated on Ihr outiide in red point with horixoftlal bands 
and rows of a LLemAtitig vertical Lines and triui^ljH. The rdof was gabled 
and slightly curved, probably made of reeds oivennj with mud. 

EvIdfiiUy in hirtlJBf + u in other lands, distinct types of houses had 
already emerged before the dawn of history r The lines of cultural 
influence and diffusion are Hot dear, but what occurred in Palestine was 
certainly not unrelated to developments dnltN, Carrying further 



ft Three Tvjki of Ancient SIdum 
[Ota ihe bun of V Muller. JAGS, LS-W. p E . Lil ff) 


the pioneer work of Andnr, 1 Valentin Muller has recently {JAOS Is. 
191 IT) distinguished these fundi mental types of building which 
hppriml in the Midi Hr E**t in Very rarly limes; the tong mom (%. 
«a>, ihr broad room (fig. fib). slid what 31tiller culls the around-the- 
corurr type (fig. fie)Bit principal nndmkou wre (I) that the long 
type originated in the highland* north of Assyria. or*! least came by way 
of Lhem into Mesopotamia; (f) tft4l thr around‘Ihc-eomer type origin 
nntrd in I he Easl MHitCffa&eun ate* (includi ng Anatolia, Syria, Mel- 
line, and Egypt l and «'« introduced thence into Mesopotamia, perhaps 
by Semite*; (3) that the brand type wis a fusion of the other two. 
produced by moving the door from the corner to the center of Ihe long 

1 ffe- npJ di* l-rfwmn i dr .j Iiuu tm *lfr, Orirmi Jiti»). 

1 CimLtt Imial mi p mrr FuaiMd iko, tail thr.v wm btf i* bare utfc ul inpiriul 

M la dri-rfBUkiaf Utrr iMrentL 


HlfrT-i) MATOIAL AMD BiCl'UR *.A(15»&TFNn 

side, producing iVHunclr) and making lie inlerwf vjfjblr u in the 
l&Eig type, 

S8. Far the Eirly Rranu Age we hive not a great deal of cviilrpee 
■regarding private dwellings. Mm ny of them, probably, were built of 
wood, though 0 there, especially in the plains, were made of mud bticka 
with alone foundation*. B(HK1 of both rwUnguliLi and rounded shape* 
have been found ml Jericho. tfegiddo, and Beth-*hean. Many of the 
people of this period, of C0PF«. still lited in hvm. At Lacheih the 
northeastern comer of thr mound is hotveycumbrd with Early BmiKe 
Age tm dwellings, dearly dated by Ihe pottery found in them, AI 
Mnri 00 the Euphrates m what is enlled by ihr eia^tflO Cily C. 
belonging ID the first half of the third millctiium.. there were mud brick 
houae*. irregular in shape but with inner courts, and built nbng street* 
having a certain regularity of alignment. 

The most elaborate Eafiy Bronze house Ihu* far excavated in Pale* 
tine it the palace at Ai. which already cxhibiU wfltr features of the 
moat characteristic type of ancient Palestinian house. The main ball 
was a H hmnd room" (cf,&g.fib) apparently opening on a central 
court. Pour rectangular uloiw b*so bore wooden pwU* mi ppnrtlug the 
ceiling and doubtless A wnind story to which rcc^> wi* gained by a 
stairway in a corridor surrounding the back ends of thr hrdl (fif,TaK 
Lalrf tine portion of the »m(lw enclosing the ntairrn*« was altered Ld 
farm a rectangular room, (fig. 7b) - 

SS. For the Middle Bronte Age we have several good example* of 
houses. The itmpkat form is the frctangular building with an enclo*cd 
courtyard agamal one of the longer ffcles. Foundations of simple houses 
of this type have been found at Jericho,. II well u one somewhat more 
elaborate. Fefhapa the best exam plea of Middle Bronze Age houses, 
however* are Ihoae found at Kiriath-arpbrf. One from the early port 
of the period (Stratum G). had a large endowed courtyard, on one side 
of which stood the house, with two door* (fig, H). In the opposite side 
of the court *«i i door leading to the street- In Stratum E, belonging 
to the time of the Kyksos r a new type of houae appears. eharacterixed 
by a long hall with A row of Lhrrr wooden pillar* on atone bases in the 
middle of it !o support the roof. It may be that Ihe introduction of 
this type of architecture was due to the coming of a new element in 
the population, connected with the Uyksos movement, On I In- nrttl l*vd 
(D). also of the time of tb* Hyksos, was a building (fig. 0) *» cUlmrate 
as to Kfm worthy of the designs Lion " palace." Hero agnin we find a 


WtfAT MEAN TMLXE fiTOSEi? 


L*0 




k 

Fif, 7. the Filvr ii Ai fftt list gf £|m ]B&i, y\ Lj 











MATfcUJAL ANO £EOT!AI ?ArtatOUS5 


141 


<1 m 


nurtynnc) before the bouse. The entrance tromtho itract t« large 
enough in this cast for * chariot I* pu® through it- Thera k iHMn ^ 
heEievr (hat the court ud perhaps &ko the ground floor of the buitdbg 
wera um-di to shelter livestock The mud brick walla, on a atone faunfe- 
tlon u Mil* were about tour feet thick, indicating that the building 


H 



G 


Hu t IWt of Tell nde Minim C (AA90R m. ft M>. 

may have been aa much aa three ilo™ high, Albright remarks that 
the type of house illustrated by the large how- of Ltrel G and the 
u Palace " of Lard D, with *n open court arvd outer entrance on the 
ilrart, is distinctly characteriatk of the Middle Bfua*c Age and ti never 
round in later periods (AAP M). 

To the early part of Middle Bronze II belong* a great palace dts- 
corered at Mari in a leiaarkahlc state of preservation. The wills of 

























i«s 


what MEAN fttKiE im>niaf 


(I mi 


»mc of the rooms, of which more Ihnfi a hundred hifc born cxtavil^i 
Wr/r found standing in snmr injUnti 1 * a I almost their original bright. 
whwrJa miut have been about twdve to fifteen feet. The miwtmrlinji 
itu of unbaked brick on foundation* of baked brick or atone, with 
floors of bat id hrifls or pliittr, Cftltfu! provision tii moiin for the 
of rmio sr wa^If wilsr. There wfit many bathrooms with Lobs; 
.molt, indrtd. had two tubs. apparently ohe for hot water end one for 



raid, T*o well prvsfrvrtl ^*x»lionin» were found in the pklicr, The 
apartments for the prinrt nfl4 hi* family hd geometric design* painted 
on the walla, one soon bemg decorated with alternate bands of color. 
Sei gutr* led into a great court, with wait* estimated to have been 
ongirudly D^O metres high. There was i canopy over the ihrofle. and a 
nW along the edge of the court to shelter the people (Syria wii. IT ff- 
vvfih tiff ff) An rl*Wraie palace of the lflth century has been ud cure red 
by Wotillry at Atrhatvah in northern Syria {Antiqwfa Journal IBM, 

1 ff). 








































(1MS41) 


fetAfEH tAL. AND IlACttJIlOEJXD 


If3 


Eicivilioni in Mcsopolamii birt shown tb type of hnuAf n*d 
this timr in that region. At Ur, Eh*- ImditionHl S’EArting-puinl of 
Abraham's migration*. WdoUct lus Fnuml house* with central wwrti, 
Ihe plastered walk being mnb c>r Min'4rinl brick on fuumULkin^ of 
bktd brack. There were second tlmii. reached by stairways. &[ lifick. 
Some of (he hnusTK had more iIllijj a dureti room*. 

UO. Pof the Ute Bnonre Age *r have evidence of furl her changes 
in domestic architecture. At Kiriath**e|dier the hounds of the popula¬ 
tion a* a whole sum to hnvr Wta better made than previously, and a 
marked tendency in build with Sin Be instead of brick is evideat. At 
Bctbl the beat masonry of a.ny period Ifl the history of Ihe site ippnn 
in Ihe Lite Bronze Age. A modification in tbr ground-plan of the 
houses appears in this period at Mcgiddo and Taanach, displaybg less 
influence from the direction of Baby touts ami more- from Ihe north and 
northwest. There ts still nn outer court* but it Is not surrounded on id I 
sides by rwm^ as in the typical Babylonian Itnuw, nor is there s wide 
room along the side of the court Oplrtdtc Ifm slrret entrance, as in the 
Middle Hthok Age houses of IVrwlittr Instead of cither of these 
arrangement* there afe smaller rooms. appro-iima Inly square, with a 
second row of similar rooms behind them, on two sides of the court. 
A coirklnr sometime* replaces the first tow of rooms on one aide. Late 
Bronze Age houses of similar plan, with stone pavements and drains, 
were uncovered at Bethel. Northern influence is held responsible for the 
reappearance of another type of house which *t have seen at Kiruth- 
S«pher in Ihr Middle Brunet- Age, but which Hum gave way again lo the 
more familiar type of lhal period. This is Ihe long hall with a row of 
wondrp columns supporting the roof. Houses of this type from the Late 
Bronze Age were found at Sheehem. 

Egyptian influence appears ifl the palace discovered by Petrie at Tell 
el-FaCah. The rooms of thU building, irregular in shape, were gnitifwd 
about a centra] enclosure, whether this was an open court or a roofed 
hall is not certain, though Prl tw favor* the latter atli-rna E Lve. There wa* 
a bedroom in one corner of the building, wilh a raised rrem for the 
bed. a connecting hath, and a sloremom in which were found forty-flee 
wine jar* with Egyptian renK At Tell oMJjul Prtrie found ihr founds- 
tioos of a well built palace, with walls lour feet thick. It slond on the 
western edge of the t*IJ. at the highest point, ovedeoking the Mediter¬ 
ranean and e&poted to ihr cooling sea brcerc. 

SI. The change from the civilisation qf the Late Bronze Age lo that 



If4 'WHAT ME.IK TIIJBI STCMIB? Cluj 

fpf the Entlv Iron Age is very sharply marked. and in no iwp«i more 
mi ihnU ttt ihr nr! of buiUiLiL* In Level B at Kirialh-rephrr the houses 
were Imiit separably. vilh nft evidnwr of flrpni»tk»B or ctwprfitusn. 
Tlir wall* were of leu In ill in the ashes of ihr preceding *Uy and o* Ml* 
old foundation*. Al Belllfl it was found that house pUm and masonry 
uf thr Early Iron Ape were incnminrably poorer than lhn*e of ihe Lite 
Dru-P^o- Arc. ll secured Hear that Ihe rweupation and rebuilding of 
ihv city, which wore preceded by h destruction of the Late 

Bronrr oily by fire, could only he explained as the work of I hr tier¬ 
ing Iinto]i l es, wht> hod long lived in lenli dlTliI hail no skill in building. 
The houses of this lime are charocteriicd by lough stout pilbrs, support¬ 
ing the Walk and wiling". Toward the end of the period a new ly|W of 
Itmjonry appeared, marked by ihe UK of very ^mn-H Clones. Elsewhere, 
for example at Rrlh-aheHresh. building with «Uh4rid bricks on atone 
foundations was still pnclisii! in this pend. There U m evidence of 
violent destruction ud rebuilding at Bcib-ihemeshp but apparently ihe 
fine budding* of the L*le Rmnre Age continued to be Used and only 
gradually deteriorated, being re (mired or replaced in a manner showing 
ft deeded define in ihe art of building. 

On thp whole, the CXCHTltkxra ull U* relatively little about the 
houaei of the Early froti Age, aside from Ihe fuCt iluiL Ihey were not 
ms well butll a* Ihnse of Ihe previous period. ft may be that the Lrarlilct 
rrrftde more U*e of wood and other perishable materials than had been 
customary in the Cn naan fie ellitt, David, expreflfltiig his desire lo 
bullil a temple, m>s to Nathan, “ See DOW, I dwell in a house of cedar, 
but Ihe *ik of God dw'dlcth within curtains'* fS Samuel 7;£). If even 
the kings palace was made of wood, the common people also doubtless 
used il in lire construction nf their houses. There was then, of course, 
no such shortage of trees as there is now in Palestine. 

The reference lo cedar, which was imported from the Lebanon, recalls 
the fact Ihnt David and Solomon cultivated friendly relations with 
Hiram of Tyre and got from him not only pmlrrialj for budding but 
aJig drilled Phoenician architects and workmen (t Samuel 11; 1 Kings 
IS). Il might therefore be expected thot a new era of building 
would be mnuguralrd. with considerable 1 improvemenls in technique. 
Rallic-r elaborate description*, indeed, are given of Solomon's palaces, 
though not lUfflewotiy complete or detailed Id make possible a convinre 
ing reoonstfHetion, Nor does arehrcdogy afford m ueb material for mitre 
preflng or supplementing the description. One areiu tsctura.1 drtad, how- 


%(|TWLIjiL A STD F£r-1_:LAh »ACK<TOUTO 


m 


(in) 


ever, hn.s been painted Dll!,, which IPUtv have been Itwd m Salomon's 
I wildings. At Mfgtdcb. &amnrin, and rl^vrheTe have been found severaJ 
rapitiiIs of ah arrhidr type commonly known a* i^rolfrlcnif (% IQ). 
Since they ctUm- from about live time of SokrOLnii rising Seym Ui lie chjir- 
urtcruLic of tb fird^i. it tun Isecn su^L'ifl^l I ha! Mioh cnpilAb, vur- 
mouriting pilasters or Lnlf columns along (hr aide* id th* bLLiktm§£», -nr 
perhaps pla+cd on lop oF door-jambs at right a Ogle* to (hr line Hit I he 
wall (OfF alii. fin 63), were probably used in (he temple at Jrfii«|pm. 
ilk which case 1 they may well have bin used in the pnlnCc* ftliM. 



Fir. Ilk. Pn :■{«-]im ir I'npilnl. HtfUta 

(Ca^rliwr Pf llip OrLnsi.il fcul.il ul* ail 11>« Von n>.L* vt i’li^riful. 


For the general ihrw* Mml there was ah impnttakrnt in Imihliiig 
at (hi* lime tomibotalive evtitfiCc is nkkpplicd hy the Hrjivnlion uf 
Mi-gkhlu, In particular Iheee n|i[n i fln For the first time in this pcfHul 
irutsonry ocmst nicled nF CAirFully rill blocks of alone > wed laid ns bailrri 
nml stretchers. An especially interesting example of such work is fontnl 
in ft large building (" Building 338," figs, tl< 3■£, 13). regarding lb nature 
of which llie eicn valors bve nut been upriMj. Some- regfttd it ^ a 
temple, others as the rasidf-nre of ah lEuportuit official For neither 
view is the evidence decisive. Protruding Iran Ihe *ialc of the building 
toward the city wall, near which the building h 1 nmls, is a square struc¬ 
ture, divided into very small chambers. In vk-w of I he thickness of t In¬ 
walls And partitions, it .seems probable that I hi* wat ft watch-lower 
overlooking the city wad. For the view that the building was a trim pic 




WUA1 MEAJf TlJiaE STOKES? 





Flf H- FIjji nr buikl^iM; it iS-mbki lAfW Oil' ±Ei, % *H 



Fi* St KjT.malfuHira, < r 4lj- «mj HmUm* 5W 

(Chwtf^F -r ih- 0iw*1d Iwiiiw* ,a Ih L'l lTfcir»*iF>. 





£t »I1 MATXBIAL AifD mcULAH BaFTCKOUau lit 

the chief argument H the fact Lhit cult object! were found in or near 
it (| t $$), LaiMC 4lid Ship Ton, bowevti, dr-iiy thit iny religious objects 
wm definitely associated with (he building, and maintain (hat (hr 
pkii i*na more writable fur a residence 1 01P slip, J&f). TW wall are 
unfk in alternate sections of Ashlar and rubble, (he foraipf consisting 
Ckf well cut Murk* kid in alternate counts of headers and stretcher*, 
carefully ^Utnhd and aligned. Thai these watts are only foundation* 
h evident fftjJn the fact that Lfitir tpfw air quite level, and (he Upper 
surfaces are burned black. Fragment* of mud brick Lugrlhrr with Ashn, 



K*. II AlMkr Rmnrifuriici of Hffdda 33tt (After Ql? nn. Pt V}. 


with which was a piece of cham4 wood ahown by cbefflkal analysis In be 
ced*r F indicate that Ihe superstructure wfaj built with a 1 half limber' 
type of fttiLhtriirlioiii trmElihg the statement of 1 Kings 7: II that the 
CkiUrta of Sptu Atoll's poker* at frnnllcm and of Lhr temple were built 
with " three course* of hewn stone and a course of cedar beams . 1 ** Guy 
U inclined to ice in this building a reflection of llitUte influence. per¬ 
haps indirect (OIC 9. p. 35). The Proto-Ionic capitals referred to 
above were found near this building and probably belonged to it. 

The most extraordinary eumpte of (he building activities of Solo- 
toon's time is the great aggregation of stahles discovered »t Mcgiddo, 
The remains nf these, which arc sufficient to accommodate about four 
hum!ml and fifty horses, include massive square stone posts dividing (he 
stall*. cobble-stone pavements in the stalls and smooth cement pave- 





















IIS 


WHAT MEAf* TUF-^ BttFtfB? 


ill tfl-ii 


n»nlfi \n the ptutjlf between lb? rows of -.laLis, and ^ven a few stoB* 
manRtrs l figs. 1+. IS), 

0j In i^e Middle Imn Age lh* old Palestinian type of hou;*-, »n- 
■usting of room* on one or mof? aides of it open court, k atill foumt 
Simple h4’-H£i of 111 ? time of Ahnb at Jrrirho illuitnic this tjpe. 1 he 
wall, ,re still 1argefy built of mud brick, ibuugh stoue also is Used m 
many placet* especially m the highlands. Sometimes rtnFl*’ is uwd for 
Lhc niflin walls and brick for Uw inner partitions, the Upper antis *t*e 
wrie ofUQ doublfeu of brick OF wood whi-ft Uw lower walls *ere of 
stone. The roofs were flat, mid* of brush and mud over wgoden beams. 
LimefloR* roller* like those !M*d now by the Palestinian villager* lo 
nil their roofs after every min have been found in Middle Iron Age 
houre*. #. g. at Kmalh-scphcr and Laehiih, Floor* were gtimetbpre P* 1 ^ 
with small stonen. though not a brays. Walk were frequently plastered. 

Particularly characteristic of many htnwi of this period is the use 
of ifane pillar, roughly rectangular or nval Ln Ml Urn. resting nn atone 
b W j. Somellmeft the pillar* consisted of single blocks; wmeUms they 
were made uf ■-rvend stoinfii piled one nn another. At Tell i-n-Niisbeh 
rows of column* uf the Latter type were found standing with long blocks 
uf stone rating on them as architraves, In the uppermost level at 
Kiriathvpber - City A> lk pillars appear in what constitute* a new 
type of differing both from the earlier house with a central court 

and from the megaron (§ H7). It consists til * large central room with 
small *tmgc chamber* ab>ug ita sides and a fow of three or four pillars 
dofMi the center to support the ceiling. Albright attribute* thtt type of 
building tn Phoenicia influence (AAP SIS). Sometimes stun? pillars 
appear In have been us*d along the open *Mt? of a room facing rn ttntral 
court, thus supporting the edge uf the n»f. They sceui also to have 
inva used ai supporting posts in the Wall*. the spaces iK-twrrn lh?m 
being filled with rough masonry or mud brick*- 

Still another type of building appear- in this period. Eiample* of 
ibis or a similar burnt have: been found at Shethcm, Tell rti Nnsbrh, 
Tell Jcmmrh. Jrfkk. and Belh-sh?nK>h. Tire plan of these buildings 
resembles that of the mt-garun, having a long main room, with u smaller 
room lying across the end of the building- There are alu r however, in 
three ImiliJingi two long. Btmv rooms on either side of Lhe main room 
(fig. 10)- Where the door* were wr do not know. Buildings of this 
type have been regarded, without sufficient evidence, as temples [§ 133); 
that they were huifWI m equally undent mi rtmbl'c, but the occurrence 
fll the type tf noteworthy, whatever they were. 


ftlATOIIAL ASU SEnrUH MCSOBOV?(Q 


m 



Fit I ♦ %Ci~eih jiiii S^iWnf* 

iCuuilMMy ul lUr HunilaJ luliiuN ,-r llur |>nTH,ir 4 Oor..f«< 



Fir 11. Siihln. HrruuInHiv 

(Cwrtw Hi 1km Qnratd tMHUi Ilf I hr L'lunmilr 








130 


WHA* MFASf 




(t HI 


Mwiv hiiUM-4 of I Hj!" period. as of eariirf period** bad two or periwp* 
thm’ stories. The *iie md weight of the central columns in the houses 
of Kiriath repbcr may b* thus (X|4amed, Eternal atone stairways, 
moreover, were jptllcM tn these huUscit- On the whole the btiUK-S freem 



Pil ie " Tfppfc,’’ Ted EQrKubfc 

(r'ainiwp nt HiF mjrrt nr IfkiliEiffk! "f 4k# J"|k*llU *1 KmI vioaK 

lo have been better fimile than those of the Early Iron Age* though Ihit 
Was not trOr everywhere*. At Ortb-shemrsh, for example, the MkUI* 1 
Iron Aj<e huyw** Wttv poorer than those of the preceding- Itcfiod. At 
IQrklh'ttpbvr then- ■*&* a decline toward the end of the period. In 
bath pUeei it wu noted that the population Wu evidently more con- 
K^trd than in the Early Iron Ajsr. t hr houses being more closely crowded 
together. Aa Albri|ht remarks, baWelrttf. the Uk of heavy stone blocks 































ell «-* ) 


MATERIAL A PtP IP-’L AM 


111 

fnr the pillars must h*v* required much more catfgy than Ihr pnr**nl- 
day pennants of Palestine expend on their hoU^*. and the pillions 
for Ihc domestic water »u pply show * higher standard of sanitation than 
obtain* in Fhkfilinina villages now. 

Especially mtarnling in the iludtnt of the Bibb act the remains of 
the pa\a<* of Omn and Ahab at Samaria 1 The main building, w ilk which 
wrer Mtodaled several oLhm, follows in g«-netal the familiar plan of 
rooftl* grouped about a central court, with Iwo additional cwfiu on Ike 
ioutk side aod * large court or hall on the north. The whole building" 
ia not of impeding siw. and w * should receive no i»pf***Km of royal 
magnificence from it did W not ha«rc tome of the rsquHt* little ivory 
panels wilh which the furniture and perhija the ivaintculing of ihc WllU 
were inlaid (j 1M), Where only foundations are preserved. it ii anlur* 
■dy diHkutH to vkiuilis* ihe appointment* of a building aa they were 
when H was occupied- The mural reliefs in hIqTi* which adorned ihe 
Anyrun palaces irptr apparently not copied by the Wing* of Israel* and 
the" furnishings of perishable materiati have ml survived- The fine 
masonry of these buildings, however. resembling that of Ihc preceding 
century At MegidcK is notable. As at Meg id do, it undoubtedly feflecU 
Phoenician influence, which It Samaria in ihU period had an abb repre- 
sentalivc in the person of Jezebel. Till* Atones ire cut with margin! 
and bes*e* cm the outer sides. The bottom courses are Laid in chanoeb 
out in the rock* and the upper eourm an? set slightly farther back than 
the lower ones, Chaweterislic 1 of the masonry here ta the arrangement 
of the stones with tire headm and a stretcher alternating regularly. 
The city of M*gbddo in this period (Level HI) fAVMvd the whole top 
of the mound and was laid out According to a remarkably regular plan, 
the buildings being grouped and spaced in block!* with parallel streets 
^>IP alii, tii’j. In the lull half-century or so or the pefbd (Stratum 
II) the houses were fairly well buill. and there were paved streets, with 
covered drains running down the middle of many of them. The city 
plan bus retained Ami developed further. 

03. Since Ihc Lair Iruh Age 1 1ron III) i* the time of the Esilc and 
the Fentafi period, il not surprising to find few important building 
mUAm*- The uppermost level at ^Icgiddn belong* to ihii period. The 
town At ibis tinir was simply a small, Unwulbd village. with very poor 
huuiei and winding lanes, instead of regular street*. Not far mtimj 10 the 

1 The Iraildnii IrmnrAy MM Ihc- p*U« irf Akmb. in • hirli II# «Ithti llKO fffe 
fmiwd, k M* kiuwftft la Ip- LUrt (UASOH So. 7X fv il ii) 


WHAT ME-I* T HW*r, H1WB? 


(H » 4 > 


m 

w«t. fll the irlr now called Ti-11 Abu IlAoin, near tliiifu, house* of the 
fifth lu ftturlh fFfitmw hnVc been fararilnl showing 4 strik&Eip iUr 
viva] nf l]n trrhllit|U 7 liotni n trendy in the Early Iron Age temple or 
ofhnnl'n hmi*r wl Mcgtddo. The prartke of having section* of nibble 
rt!U™imf with wetkfia of uphkr. the latter consisting of alternate 
ronrses nf (u'fltlpr* anrf Ifrvlebcrs. apparently survived antfkElg the inhabi¬ 
tant* of this region for five or six centuries after hying brought from 
I lie north in the Lime or Solomon. 

Tin 1 TUMl impressive building of the Prnbn prhiKf yet found in 
haleslinc is I hr pnEner of Tell rd-Duwdr (f- ff rhfr M . Tim |iLnn of tfcu.fr 
building seems rather north-Syrian or Hittite limn IVrsirtfi. Small moms 
Htirmaitl a court OH litres ii&n; on the fourth side je broad flight of Ihm? 
steps knds through a whir opening. divided by two pillars, to two broad 
morn*, one behind the other, with smaller rooms bduad I hem nail on 
either ijiJf, 

!U. Eik [hr HrllmMir period we have to do with two different kinds 
of soil lenient*, ihr old dlks, which wen? merely more or leu rebuilt, 
ami the new cities rsinbtishfil by vetmtu of the coibq ill* ring tinniti 
or by other iEiimhcrtbti. from the lirrrk world. Tn the former cities 
fvlftlivvly I it 1 II -1 change from I hr preer 1 Edip period is found. A| Somalia, 
for example. the typmsl form of house, a court with one brood room 
flton^ one shir and smaller ronens on the two adjoining sides, U already 
familiar. Ai MflfM (Tel! Sn mlahfl mm). where the whole Jin** of the 
elty of fhU period wm# laid bare by Bibs and MacaUsler. the houses. 

I milt nf limestone, wtnr crowded Luge-ther and wry irregular in form 
bti! mnsisted in general of broad rooms and smaller square rooms built 
nlxmt all four sides of n ruurtyardr 

Tfcie new Greek cilres, and tn a IrMrr extent the older one* tbn r 
followed maVT nr Iw closely the typical Hidlc-ntitir city-plan devised 
by nipiwdarnn* nf Miletus. musbiliiLg of rectangular bluets on cither 
lldc nf a straight Men in street through the tt-tvlrr of the city, with a 
itjAtiel plan- approx mini ely in I hr center, tn Galilee and the Ihva polls 
^ Hh jbubllw followed quite faithfully: mifbff mutely 
thii eamiLkt bo itrm-nndmlfd in dclnil. because the extant rvniftini of 
Ehest' rittm .ira aboo*! entirely Homnn. A somewhat dtsTiPrti-il copy of 
tils- s|nmliinl pLin may hr seen at M.nrisa: possibly later Ffifeytiding 
obscured an originally more regular arrangement (VVDF 1 ii 18) . Samaria 
also »How*. rorue attempt at rity planning nn the Hellenistie pattern. 

At Araq el-Emir iu Transjordan, ru-or I he Western edge rjf I he plateau 


(H M4) 


MAttm&L aNTj mrua dackiCUL’Sd 


133 


h hove the Jordan n%^ and almost directly tUSl of Amman, are the 
ruins of a building concerning which Josephus hu much b snjr (Anti- 
r^uihei XII. r¥. II). tl is Lbe castle of Car Family of Tobias, of whom WO 
read m Ihe Zeno Papyri in f*cl hi* MIIW ts graven in fta rock 

bciirlc- two ncuby uvu. Only a portion of Ihe wails still sin ads, but il 
is sufficient to show the lions can ed in relief, to which Josephus refer*. 
Whether the Jewish historian had ever *«n the place is doubtful for the 
stone which bo call* white h red sandslnpE, nor are the caned animals 
of such prodigious sire as he would have his readers believe. The real 
importance of the building lif? in l-he fact that il is on outstanding 
«xampk of the mixture oF Greek in flue net with the older architectural 
traditions of the Orient, 

ft5. Remains af buddings From the Roman period aw relatively abun¬ 
dant in Palestine. Many towns, including Samaria and Scythnpohs £ Bclh- 
sheanj) ware rebuilt Boofl after the Hainan annexation of Palestine by 
Gahiniu^ then governor of Syria. HoUlU which bdung b this phase 
of the city's history were excavated it SattwrU before the World War 
by the Harvard expedition A rectangular amhgvmrmL of streets was 
brought to light, each block ordinarily containing four home*- The 
general plan and some of Ihe building may have survived From the city 
of Ihe IJeEtcnislic period] in any owe, as might wall be expected *e «tiy 
in Ihe Roman, period, Ih* bout** flowed a Hellenistic pattern, with 
column* surmounted by Doric and Ionic capitals forming porticoes at 
the ride* of Ihe central court. In the Roman fortress excavated by Bliss 
and MacaJufer at Tell cl 4 tide id eh {$ 104) the residency of the officer 
in command consisted oF |W 0 building* Oft either sirSe of a passage or 
corridor. One oF these belonged to the indent native type, with rooms 
■bout the central court; the other dearly exhibited Hellenistic Features, 
including a deep square basin, surrounded by a peristyle, in the center 
of the court. 

Herod the Great look pride in erecting buildings on Graeco-Roman 
models, even beyond the botituJuries of his OWB domain. For the rccon- 
* Inaction of these We lave the descriptions of Josephus to aid in interpret¬ 
ing the archeolagkal remains. The typical Hcrodiaa miunry. Employing 
huge stones, Carefully fitted together, is exemplified by the substructure 
of the 1 Tovcr of David * m Ihr Citadel at Jerusalem, the J Wailing 
Wall 1 and ether portions of the wall surrounding the temple enclosure,, 
and the great building now housing the mo^nu; at Hebron. The outer 
surfaces of the Slone* have drafted margins, and the central space is 



inuutlird with the cnmb-pick. TV- 4 Tourer of Divid 1 part 

of HerwTs palace; since this partook of the eharaetrf of t fbftrai at 
mi as n dwelling, «c *hnll h*ve oceuun 10 refer to it again. Of (ha 
theatre. litiipndititna, and moil inf the other building* which Herod 
erected in Jerusalem practically nothing survive*, A remnant of the 
(put causeway which ipanuted (hi? valley between the temple amt the 
wMt«m bill U to be teen in Enbtuon 4 * Arch. itauicd after the pioneer 
American arcbeofogtil who inl-rn Lifted. at. 

Aikaloiu Herod* birthplace, anil Samaria, hi* favorite place of red- 
dcnre. were adorned with buildings. and a ULiigiiifiren t srEi|tori wn_t Imilt 
At Caesarea, so named En honor of the emperor Auguiln* Of it* great 
molr and the nia^nilirtni buildings dehriM lay Jnwphm lilllr ii now 
to be H«lt except tumbled cdunin* at the water’* edge. At Snflwru, 
which Herod renamed Scb&ste in honor of hi* imperial pa iron (Sutartfr 
the Greek equivalent of the Latin iv^wtel), excavation hail 
bnmght to light some raiminj of Herod'* work, though a great deal of 
rebuilding w*» done under one of the later Roman etnpei™, replacing 
most of tie rod's building*. The genera] plan of the City Hrnii taut to have 
b«n dunged much bj Herod in the (Erection of Roman custom, but 
rather to have followed the Hellenistic: plan, m already introduced by 

Gnbhnitii 

Herod had palace* or raitln at several other placet, including Kypros 
near Jericho, the Alexandre ton ovrriock rug (he Ionian on the ouUtaad~ 
ing height no* called Q*jn Saruheh, and Ihc place where he was buried 
nn the concal hdl near IWlhlehrm known aioce the Middle Age* as 
Frank Mountain. The remain* of Herod’* palace in the great fortress 
□f Masada (f 104) exhibit a plan more Oriental than Ramin or Hellen- 
ialie, charaeterixed by the grouping of mom* about a number of «HtTml 
courts and tiir predominance of rooma entered not at one end but 
through cue of (he longer aides. Ow future indeed, the friodn. a room 
entirely open oh the ride facing the court, i* probably of Arabian origin 
and may be traced to Herod"* Idumea □ ancestry (IV DP Li. M f). 

Herod Agrippa, irm K *-** an unhituu* builder. Watxingcr attribute* 
to hii time the triple arch commonly known as the Ecm Homo arch, 
part of which spans the narrow street north of the temple *» A nd is 
pictured in many ixwlu concerning Jerusalem, Ihc other ad being 
visible in the adjoining church of the Sister* of Zion (WDP ii. $7 T ). 
The generally accepted view, however, i* that thi* areh vu built under 
Hadrian in tfe? second century, in which case it doe* pot belong to Ihc 
New Testament period. 


UAtnUL ASn mcculaji aaotoKottifn 


135 


IIH) 

At any ncu' towns were- built by ihc Aomitl cirtpcfoW nail governors, 
pUk) dd«r cities were rebuilt, Tb most cbjinclrritlw frtUiff of these 
ei lit* n street nf ryluhins leading from a triple gale through the 
center of the d!j\ uadi crossed by one nr more secomiAry streets of 
columns* Lhc inlmcttion in nd ease being marked by a monumental 
Irtnpyloh. Shop* lined the streets and on either aide wm temples. 
Lhmlres, bath*, and other public building, nol to mention the houses 
of the rili*rnv Tire best preserved example of such n Human city in 
Palestine U Jrr**h {Geraoa), though moat of iU jirrhitecturnl rr mains 
nrr wmtulkpt later than the New Testa men I period- Tbrf* ii an «pc- 
rialiy fme Woman ihralre it Amman. Llie capital of Tmfuj$n!iin. and 
in western I p aie*tinc remains of such, theatre Hit to Ins seen at BcUan 
and at Seppboris. in northern Trans Jordan, as in Syrii. Homan ruins 
arc plentiful. but practically all are later than lire &rst century. A 
special tjfpe of architecture, strongly affected by Greek >fl4 Woman 
influence but also showing peculiarities of ita owti, U tire Nnbistnt-an 
architecture, most conspicuously exemplified by the mek-rul facades of 
the caves of Petra* but also apparent in many remains of buildings at 
other places in sou them Transjordan. 

The total effect produced on the observer by all there Woman remains is 
* strong itnprrawm of tire extent U* which Palestine had been Kdlemzed 
and nonLQELUcd by the lime of JeSUJ and hit first fulk-v. cts. Tile village}, 
¥0 be sure, must have remained very much like what they hud been for 
centuries. In the cities, however, the outward appearance of the build- 
iojfs and streets at least was greatly altered. As one feels today in some 
parts of Cairo or Beirut that he might almost Ik 1 in Paris, so the cities 
Of Palestine presented at this time much Lhc same aspect ai did other 
cities throughout the Roman empire. The writer well remembers the 
new sense of the unity and extent of Roman civilization which came to 
him when he saw excavated at Jerash in Transjordan the hypocaust of a 
Roman bath exactly Like one he had shortly before seen uncovered in 
northern England, 

In Sfw Testament Times, of course, the stage of biblical history Was 
not limited to Palestine. As at no other time since lhc period of the 
patriarchs, it included almost The whale orbit ttrmrum ■ iT that day. 
Excavation* at Antioch, Ephesus. Athens. Corinth, Rome, and nth Err 
places with which lhc New Testament if concerned may therefore be 
looked to for pertinent information. Discoveries at some nf these places 
have already been mentioned in eariier chapters, and others will appear 


I3ti 


WHJkT MEAH TIHSI fiTONIBp 


(It 


later in the course of our For the qUeslium of architectural 

rEcvHflpmvnt. wilh which wr an* here concerned F it seems hard \y neces- 
yftry to building* uncovered at any of their dti«. f&F the verj r 

n*aen that the main feature* of Roman ifchltHtBR were ranch alike 
everywhere aad are fairly fimilur. 

m. It must be admitted that archeology has not given us for each 
perbd of biblical hi*lory a complete picture of the hotlici turn lived in 
A painler wishing to illustrate a biblical scene would be hard put to it 
La learn from report* of excavation* exactly how he should represent 
Jericho at the time of llw conquest, or Jerusalem in SoUnnooV day. 
What the excavator uncovers is Like the remains of house* one sometimes 
sees when driving along a country road- a cellar, stone found*! kuk*, a 
chimney standing alone—rf pt&ftr*#a ruA J. Such evidence leavef raueh 
to be desired a.* a means of determining how the house wa* built anil 
what it looked like. What are able ta Seam from the excavated 
remains of ati£tral Palestinian hoUUPs is sometimes no more than the 
ground-plan. Here and there, however*, a bit of mud brwk or chirred 
wood, I he beginning of a flight of itepa, or unusually thick walls have 
given iu fairly reliable hinU regarding what U no longer preserved. Far 
a complete picture #c mucl tti\\ iwe our kmaginstioos. At least we have 
»mc cheek on the play of the imagination^ and some of the errors we 
might otherwise hive nude am eliminated. 

P7. The ancient cities of Palestine were strongly Fortified from the 
Bronze Age to the Roman period. In the Stone Age. it seems, the gentle 
art of warfare had not developed to the point of making such Fortified 
cities necessary. If there was anything at all in the Way of fortiAeathOm 
in the Paleolithic and Mesolithic Ages, it consisted only of stones piled 
up in the mouth of a cave. For the settlements of the Chalcolithk 
period too Ho fortifications have yet been reported. During the Early 
Bronze Age, however, there seems to have been a strong tendency to 
establish cities on low bills or the ends of projecting spurs of mountain 
range#, rather than in the open plains or valleys, and to fortify them 
with strong walls. The earliest form of city wall seems to have been 
made uf mud bricks on a foundation of uncut stones. The oldest stone 
wall* arc faced on both sides with hugs blocks, filled in with packed 
earth sad stone*. From the manner in which header* and stretchers an 
laid ia these walls it has been inferred that this type of masonry shows 
prior experience in building with mild brick (PEFQS JtfS+, pp. IBM1), 
At Tainach large square bricks, sun-dried, were found, marked with 


i;lf 


matlh r al awn oetitlar 


157 


itihi^D Idee those on policy- from about, the end of the Early Bronte 
Age. Culike the rectangular ttuckpPUrM built with a iimilar technique 
in the alluvial plains of Egypt and Mesopotamia, the fortifications or 
the Palestinian cities fallowed the irregular outline* of the hills on which 
they were built. Ai was surrounded by a strong triple Will in this period. 
Meglddo also had already in 1h* fc first part of the Early Bronze Age a 
massive city wall, originally tour and later eight metres thick. 

iNot only building in bmk and itone but also cullinR In the rock 
was practised on fth Aaiofiiabbg Beats in this or the fallowing period. 
The vinter supply of the cities was assured for times of siege by hhiL 
shafts cut through the tolid rock- One of the most imposing of these is 
at Grzrn Others are found *t several places, though the dating is uncer¬ 
tain ilk most cim. 1 Cisterns also came into generaL use during this 
period, making the occupation of sites not adequately supplied 

by springs, Caves which had formerly been used as tombs were often 
walled up and used as cisterns, and pita were frequently sunk sn the 
*olid rock alia, 

UH. The foTlkhcadons of the Middle Bronze Age cities are the most 
elaborate and the most powerful found in any period of Palestinian 
history. Several types are represented in various places, showing import¬ 
ant developments in military architecture. The earliest settlement at 
Tell d-Ajjul, near Gaza, in the Middle Bronze Agf. had a moat twenty 
fret deep on the outer aide, the inner side sloping up to the city at m 
angle of thirty-five debtees, from the gate a tunnel five hundred feet 
long led out into the plain, where it was met by a sunken roadway, cut 
in the rock, and another fosse. Whether the tunnel was made for a 
particular military purpose lei am auHfaqr P by besieged or besiegers, 
is not clear, 

Thf wall of Grwr bad tower* at regular interval^ but they were more 
finely by lit than the wall Jt*eif and did hot form ah Integral part of it* 
having probably been inserted at a later dale. The earliest Middle 
Bronze wall of Jericho, however, had a motive tower OH the cost side, 
above the spring, probably beside the city gate. This early wall of Jeri¬ 
cho wa* built of very large mud bricks, with a single course of unhewn 
stones a* foundation- At Tell Belt Minim no walls have been found in 
Levels I H. which belong to the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age, 
but Level G had a city wall about eleven feet thick, made of relatively 
small stone* At about the middle of the Middle Bronze Age, the time 

1 On the ■'■ItfUTilrEn of Mrpdiiui per OB 1 iuu. 



136 


WHAT StfcAS TBM .RTOSTEfi? 


Si Ml 


al the llyksos invasion, n new Lype of fqctificatkm appcan in Syria. 
Palatine. and Egypt If rnillktl of J*™i iceUngular fortified cun pa, m 
touch as half b hiilr Ion*. m roiIDdcd by ikspinp! ramparts of 

packed earth The best example of such ■ llyksoi fortification in FV1«- 
litVf is at Hiiflf in northern Galtfctv It measure* 1000 by 4m metre*. 
Other entbllM of this sort mill At Carehemiih and ftatna in S>ttX. 
at Ashkdon in southern Falntm*, and at Tell d-Yefaudiycfa in I*Wrf 
EfjrpL They were dearly used So shelter the chariots. wagona, and 
faoixa, which are known to have been introduced to Palestine by the 
Myltsos invader*. 

Still another type of fortification, perhaps sillily later though abo 
doubtlc&s connected with the folk movements aasodaled with the 
Hyksoi, kfl found at Taanach and Tell Euan in northern Palestine. at 
Shechrm n the central highland*, at Jericho in the Iordan valley, and 
at Te3J Beit Minim and Tell frl-H*« in the south*e*trrn hill-country. 
It employs the principle of the hfcoping rampart, but has a brick, wall 
with a atrong sloping slotte fonndaiion, plastered with hftnl peked cLay 
nr lime plaster. Fine example* of the type of masonry kfipwa u Cyclo¬ 
pean, consisting of huge blocks nf irregular shape *Uh small stones 
filling the spaces between them, appear m these fortiftCatioM* am for 
Instance at Shechem and Jericho. The foundation and sloping revetment 
were commonly ict In a shallow trench* which was liken Filkd m- They 
thus Served to hinder I he common ancient practice of underminiltf 
walls, and the coating of plaster made scaling the wall very difficult, 

AI Mrgiddo a mud brick wall and gale of about ISOQ B.C. (Level 
Xlllj have been found. The wall turn* inward just before Teaching 
Ibe gate, which is so made that one wbo passes through Ihe outer 
entrance must turn sharply to the left to reach the inner gateway. 
A Middle Bronze Age city galr m excavated by MaCalUter at Geter. 
Here a straight passageway at fight angles to lb* direction of the wall 
led into the city between 1*0 brick lowers which projected beyond the 
face of the will on the outer side. Somewhat later but still probably 
belonging to the cfld of the Middle Eronite Age II the inner wall of 
Gczer, with its northeast gale. The latter was formed by having one 
part of the wall overlap the adjoining portion, with i space between the 
two cads which *a* occupied by the gate tower, so that an enemy 
attempting to enter the gate would have to turn to the left to pass 
through the opening, thus exposing his right itde P unprotected by hii 
shield, to the defenders on the wall. At other placet at ill further compli- 


MATIOtlAL BACKBHfKTNiJ ISC 

fitioDi were devised to increase the difficulty of approaching and 
iHorniing the piles. 

&fl. The chief ^pAhurt in the construeNoli of city walls in the Lfltc 
Hmnze A^t 4eeJaii Lo huvt been the Hie of a double brick wall on eIooc 
foundations, Tvilh a space between the ft nlh Al Jericho the outer wall 
wm about hLk fwt thick, the inner about twdve f«t F and the space 
between Ihrnt wu from twelve to fifteen feel wide The inner wall 
was built in pift on the foundation* of older fortifications, the outer 
one mini only on debris and SlftHl Oil the outer edge of the mound. 



Fltf- 17- Ti5fcrt iit Shw'hjJH (Oe Iha tiui* rf £*itickr. d Pflf fiTT. 

afia. 11 »)- 


Thin w*lli connected the inner and outer wall* on the north side. Else- 
where timbers were laid from ofie wall to the other, and houses were 
built Upon the very walls, exactly a* the bouse of Rnhab is said to have 
been (Joitm* h»), Other houset were bnill against the inner aide of 
the inner wall, ai commonly happen* in walled cities of all lands and 
ages. At the northwest comer of the city was a sifting forLreis-toucr. 
Thc wall* of Beth-shean also were double, at leaat in part, the outer 
and inner waits being connected with eposs-wall* forming small mortu, 
as at Jericho., and toward the end of the period new foundations were 
Laid and a new set of double wall* was built. A strong tower, built 
at about the middle of the period. wtu nude of largt- unbaked bricks 
on a foundation of basalt blocks- In feu-ral, perhaps u 4 result of the 
use of mure e-fretive projectile weapons, projecting to**ji become 


140 WHAT MFAK THitt iiTGKESf 

contmcm In Lite Bronre Age forliflrttkihK enabling the defender* to 
cover attacking fortes with crossfire (BMAB i ^B). 

A curious building, variously inlerpfttwi Al t*inpte r forlrtsa, or house K 
was uncovered just [aside the city wall of Shccheiu (Ad-17 J- It con¬ 
sisted nl a iLugfc poo rn, with 4 door at the end opening fin an open porch 
in mc^UOn-fubkHL The w*Ui were five metre* thick. although the 
room measured only thirteen by eleven metres there were also 

two row* of bases For wooden columns. These CuU Strong 
that the upper portion of the building must have hern very heavy, 
consisting perhaps of n* many U three storire Quite poidhly this 
was a defensive tower of the type called mipJdf by the Hebrews. The 
suggE-iliofl I Ills t Jt may rven have been the v«y ir s tronghold of E1- 
herilh r * referred to in Judge's is rather tempting;, d io, the wn- 

iive auggttt* that the supcndrutlnre was largely made of wood, 

EraLVfllmi on OpheL, the southeastern hill of Jerusalem* have un¬ 
covered fortifications which may in part go back to the Late Bronre 
Agt, At the north end oF the hill, Ju^t south of what later beta®* lire 
temple U», «nre traces of an altffclil waU of targe unhewn * to tie* have 
been Found, On the eastern side* above the spring, appeared a strong 
wall with a sloping revetment, bto which had been set a tower. The 
British cXcnvatore regarded this will a* that of the Jebusite city which 
David captured: the Lower they bettered to have been added by David 
liimsrlf. This dating has been disputed, and shill refer to lb* matter 
again in connection with the fortifications oF the Early Iron Age (§ 101). 
(hi the western side oF the hiB a large gate has been fifcmtaL While 
it was used down into much lalrr times, and in its present form may be 
of later origin, it probably Standi on the site of one of the gales of the 
Jcbusilr city. It was placed on a ledge of the native rock. Facing the 
Tyropoeoii valley, and a vertical icarp rose directly back of it, » that 
a person entering had still to turn to the left or right and climb several 
feet to the top of the hill nn which the city stood. 

100. The sudden deterioration which has been noted in the constru e - 
lion of houses it the beginning of the Early Iron Age ia equally con¬ 
spicuous in the FortiBcalbni. At Tell Beit Mireim. in place of the strong, 
thick walls of the Middle Bruns* and Late Bronze Ages, a wall about 
five feet thick, connected by thin partitions with an inper wall of only 
half that thickness, surrounded the city in the Early Iron Age- The 
explanation of the striking change if Joublkju that which was. given 
by the excavator (AAP 104), and it applies to other dUt* of Pales- 


(I 1H) 


MATERIAL AMD AECULAll HA CSC ROC KD 


141 


tine «|i]i]]y well- vkreu the Caiuamte dty-rtatea hid a feudal 
organization. by m?in« of which Tcrtd ll^f CfFtlld b* used in public 
work? t Ihe Israelites h! the lime of the C0Dqur*4 were only lastly 
organized by tribes, and it the slightest hint of coercion they were ptuhr 
to cry* “ To your tents, 0 Israeli Hence the were able to 

build mftH L tnftisivciy than the Israelite*—a virile log example of the 
efficiency of autocracy, specially in military mattein! 1 

Ff the stale of affairs at Ted Beit Mimrn has heels rightly accounted 
for, we should expect to find a fiimilar drop b the strength of military 
architectal* at other place* which were captured h y the Israelites but 
not at places which th«-y failed to take. Many of the Canaanitc ' t cities 
that stood on their ixxhxJi ” (Joihua 1141S> continued. of course, to 
stand there for softie time in the Early Inn Age. with their old 
Bronze Age walls, A lUl of dtie* from which ihr Israelites could not 
drive out the inhabitanta. who with strange atubWnne&s " would dwell 
in the land." i* given in Judges t:97tf. Among these are BcIh’Sheafl. 
Megiddo, and Beth -she mesh, all of which have been excavated, ff at any 
of these place* St ahould appear that the same change in fortifications 
look place al about Ihr same time as at Tell Beit Minim, the relation 
of this change to the Israelite conquest would have to be reconsidered. 
Information on Ihk point with reprd to these ciUea has not yet been 
published, 10 far AS the present writer Is aware, though Grant refer* 10 
walls of the twelfth century al Belhrshcmevh iGR.4 94). McguMo had 
a mud brick wall at Level V, which belongs to Ihr Early Iron Age and 
is one of the first, if not the first, of I he Israelite Iweb; hnw this wall 
compared with those of Levels VI and YII, however, doth not yet 
appear. 

The highland castle of Saul at Gibeah (£££)„ while built in a crude 
style of nutaonry as compared ^ilh later or eajHicr buildings in Falea- 
Une, shews at least that the Israelites at the end of the period of the 
Judge? were able tn construct strong aud flirty large building*- Accord¬ 
ing to Albright's estimate, based on the measurement* of the one corner 
towef which was excavated, the whole cutlc must have measured at 
[east fifty-two by thirty-five metres, i, e. about 170 by 115 feel (BASOB 
No. 5i, p. 8) * At each corner, if we may assume that the other three 
were like the one which was preserved, there waa a strong lower, with 
i double wall and partitions forming small chambers or curimt« 

k At lb UJZ* lime, ■ Bairoii [rinli ml (BMAB i. Ht] .iVwul WpW buultj 
m Lkia pcvwd nude nick tPmwi* femttWtnn 4# tWt pf the CutanUn b* urw v i y. 


ut 


WllnT \TUlS 




rii loo-ipn 


(Bg.lti). Tbi* U the only building Xhm far uncovered which can be 
ruunrclrd wit h. iSlc reign of Said, though of courw other Eariy Iroti 
Age KiMini may actually fpnm that lime. 

(01. The ironsdidnlioft ud erteiuicm of the kingdom by DuM (g 74) 
mu-rt havn- i , ntAiLfc| n good ijraJ of work in forliliirothin At JeniitStfin,, 
m previously »otnl. 4 lower in^rtol in the old ^Ji^inrt on thr cast 
uf OpM was all rib u|ed by the nnnldfl to Divwj. Thu dating 



r* IV Fkfl SuTl Ciitli al f.ibriH N* «. p 7). 


it qUnLvIinJ by Watiin^f, who holdi that ttw sloping. slcp*likc r*m- 
patt iUril it probably Dav id t work, if nul SolomnnY It it not unlike 
I he tloping revetment at Gibr*h. which belong* to the ninth century 
or later. The lo*tr which the eicavaton attributed to David u 
»tfi^d by WilUingrf to lb* end of ihr Middle Iron Ap, bcaUw th* 
Qlnftr* do hot have I hr- nmootbedi margins characteristic of masonry 
belonging to the tenth to eighth centuries (WDF L 89), This CMC b 
an eicifUflnl ilJustralma of thr difficulty of dating masonry in fukutioB- 
Only when dearly datable pottery fngEMfiU are found embedded in the 
maaemry lUrlf cAh the dal in* be absolutely certain. tn the wall guarding 
DfihrS on the north was f^und ■ stretch of inaionry. evidently replacing 
an older wall, with a gatr Hanked by two toven, of which one was 


































cl mi) 


MATEREAL lUOiQIOL'M) 


143 


preserved, Small hewn stones. exhibiting tin? first of comb-picking, 

ire laid in regular courses. 1| may be that tbb wall and fate ire the 
work of Divid (bo WDP. Iw.cjt)- 

No other architectural TemaUu can be confidently attributed to Dived, 
though be may have beep responsible fur some other fortifications tbit 
have been discovered, At Ain el^udietrit, the probable site of Kadesh 
Bamra, a fgrLrt-ii of about the tenth century wa* observed by Woolley 
iod Lawwcw in their surrey of the N'e^b, though they #erc unable to 
date it correctly. It is slightly larger thin S*uJ p i tulle it Gibeah, and is 
built on the simc plan. including the rectangu |*f fom, the double walls 
Slid CiHiDitefl, ind the squire towers it the corner?- Possibly this *u 
i frontier post built by Divid or Solomon, or it may have been built 
by KehoWaim At Jericho Garbling excavated the foundations of * 
large building of ibout the tenth century. Its njli r made of Slone, 
were from four to lit feel thick, ind the foundations were Idd deep in 
the debris of earlier levels. It is thought (hat this building vu one of ft 
scries of border forties*** built by Divid or Solomon. 

Sine* Solomcn 1 * reign wu one of great building activity in other 
particulars. it ii i|together likely thftt It Considerable pirl of the Early 
Iron Age fortifications uncovered it various points in Palestine com* 
from this time. At Megiddo, which it mined among the cities rebuilt 
by Solomon (l King! irlfl) h the great north gate shows evidence of two 
distinct periods; the upper part, formerly attributed lo Solomon, u now 
known to be somewhat liter, while the lower portion, uncovered in the 
past few yean, belong* 10 the Solomonic ferret (Stratum IV). 1 To the 
same period belongs also the great city will, built in blades of m*wtrr\\ 
each block set i little ahead or back of the ones adjoining it and running 
in i slightly different direction, so that the will curved about ibe mound 
even though each block mide a straight tine (figs. It ind li). The 
■ddilion of towers to the earlier wall of Gcter may have been a part 
of the rebuilding of the city by Solomon, liter his royal Egyptian father- 
in-law had taken it from the Canaamtei, burned it, and given it u a 
wedding present to hi* daughter. Solomon's wife (1 Kings »:1M7). 
Ifl the spring of 1930 ■ strongly budl city wall of mud brick was dis¬ 
covered it Etion-gcher fn it *14 one of the finest city gale* 

’Cea*^ fFEQ 1040 IH-JiT? puLj M'pAfc IV iq ft# tw Ahih n the huii 
*T nunpuiwu vith Sinuji* AJfedflsl. I wtWi , »h ilr p vini d*Lei Itdr fiftr |« wf^wnlj 

titjfr IhjJi Ouac ai Ukui in| HhiptB, fa itnLiii, unti vift tb^n in 

r*mduLf It u SotaDMil'i fAJA tMO 540 } 




144 what wta* mss STOS£ 4 f rt 

rw c^«v»lc.J in Piil^ticw (flfe.1*). Aj a esrlkr |pl** mtnliomil 
nbu^r. it peHtiD pwauig ihflMitfh the nulcr rhl^ncc ha.il turn jiL 4 
right mtijsh- It* gnhi a*™* Ns the citv i, C'iOs?J lOlh 


fl*. fcb. ««r EiKm-H^r tOO&I. Fiis il) t 


HvMhmieli la. *:ii4 tu have frjrtiflrd m. number of important ylm&ri ££ 
CliFiiLikliA ll;3-ltl). OF these the an-ty fines which have bttn txeftTpti*i 
iih AitLih <Tcll ZnlwHyeh >, Drlh-iur* Uchbik anil Man 4ab (T*b 
Suvinhutui), Wall? tmeoYored by Hliu aGsJ Mevslistier at Axckfrit ami 




ll 191 ) 


HaTKMaT.. AJTP OTCVWl nACSCHOl?fO 


Marshall were attributed. together ’vith ottcra elsewhere, la RcholHwun. 
Nothing yet founil rE pji'lh-iur or bchbih ran Im: definitely cchiireltd 
tttlh fth reign. In the latter CWe tl may he I hat. lEL-hu-Wm's fortifim- 
Ikmfl were largely destroyed Pit the timt of ^nnifbn'h’s invasion, two 
centuries Uter, 

At other places tool *pccifie*|ly mentioned as having been fortified 
by lti-hiihn j m, there are wall* and building* which niny have item built 
ku hi* j*ign_ At Tell d-Kudmii (^b^huneli), ml fa r fnun Ja ff-a_ Snkcnik 
recently cseneated n forint of the tenth or ninth century lit siane 




Fur *Q MmJhI* tVjnlrr Fbtiin, ' TklTfrJ. Fig 71) 


watts were found preserved in plAtc* Ut -a bright uf Tim: im-tpw. Tiemaim. 
of Tiud brick* indicated that lhe Up|*f part n>f 1 |n- ImiMinji had been 
made r>r that material A JA 1 & 3 &. p, 1431. The ptmtfiem forlrrii at 
Ain ebQudtJttii ata*. as noted nbon* f may h-ive been built hy Kdiulxmm, 
The dirii'ioii of the kingdom amt the invadmi of blinluk i§'T6) 
would mturilly clinrtiiimgE the building of fortifii .ikioU" m Isnid &*, well 
ai Judah. In connection wit h the petty border tAlfllt Iw-hiWfl the 
two kingdoms wr hstve thr miller a musing *bjry of Raashna building 
jl vail at Eta elij] li which was promptly torn down by As*, the stonei 
being imnhportcd to Gcb* and Miipnh and Midi fot lie* wplJj there 
Chronicles The first capital of IHe natlhrm kingdom. 

Shceliem. had been in the Middle arid talc ttrtmici- A&ci <ui* of I he 
most atronply fortified place* in Palr-itihc i^fi $8 0 . A| *omt I tine- during 


114 


II 101-5) 


thr Ijitr Hronir Age or thr Early tmn the old whII to «vtr«l 
wLtJi Kiri, od which t new wa!I wm* i* reeled. Cjifrirtutulriy I he ncn 
% it ion uf Shechrm has been |po sporadic and unsystematic to previa 
a clnr pidtltt of thi« fortifications. 

East of I hr l<inlin arc many re inn in* of Early Iron Age fortifications. 
NrLuin OliiKk'A areheotogiraL mnfi of Tran^nlan ha* bronchi to 
light a srtat many facts concerning these (AASOR aiv, iv r iviii-iix). 
A whole system or fortrmrt guarding the harden of thr kingdom of 
Edom hn hern dbclored, Tlrey m &plUatetl that Ircun each one 

thore- nmreit 00 Mh »h{pp were vwiWrr IF these fortresses were already 
in »ii|et|c? at ibt- time of the exodus* (m wonder the Edomites were 
able to prevent the children of Israel from traversing their territory 
(§ &Q) . The Moabites also had fortresses guarding their borders fflg. in) . 
Om- of the moit interesting results of tdunrLi survey is I he demonat ra¬ 
tion that I he round towers, sometimes attached to rectangular build- 
inj[i r in the territory of Ammon belong to the Early Iron Age These 
buildings tic u distinctive in form and nulrvcLkm that many of them 
■ it designated hy thr i*me Arabic name, mjm W-ind|if/ ^circular heap) * 
Owing ta their gregahlhrc ronMnictkm, eharaclerucd by the uw of huge 
slabs of limestone, lhr*r building* have often been atlrihutcd to the 
Neolithic period or the Brcmie Age. They are now seen to belong to 
the Ammonile kingdom, eopIfmporary with Lb* Judge* and the firal 
Hebrew kings, Like the Edomite and Moabite harder fortresses they 
were commonly located in such a way that each one was vtftbfe from 
the one n&xl to it in line. Undoubtedly »omr system of signals, by fire 
or otherwise, was used for coRimunk-itmtL between these posts. 

1W. The masonry used in Middle Iron Age waUi and towers, like 
that of the houses* exhibits a considerable development. Between the 
mrgalithic eonslrurtiun of the Ammonite mjm ei-siqf/uf and I he fine 
WWW? of Samaria there is a vast difference, Down to the lime of 
Soknmti hewn atonn had rarrly been used in Falriitinc, and For some 
lime |hey were uwd only at the corner* or in reytkiii* of the Walls. 
The ninth century wall of Samaria* however, like the palace of Omri and 
A hah, is made of stem carefully eul and regularly bid as headers and 
slmcbera. The walls were plumbed and aligned more exactly than in 
eartier periods, and the lowest course was laid Ln bed-reck Of in a 
Ireprh cut in the ruck. At Samarig. the outer Face of each stone is eul 
with tmoolit margin v I he rest of I he surface being left as a rough bw, 
and a regular mi eorafaft of a stretcher and two headers is followed 


if i«» 


SJATEILEil ASU KtCt'LAII 


14 T 

That lhc*e unpnvtfncnli in the technique of building w*rr a result of 
Phoenician i-nfl uener h»> already been obttTVcd, In the eighth century 
fhrTX' appears to bivr been n decline in the** mattery du* peffclpfl to 
lll-fi rak cuing of the Hebrew kinffdom^ by I he growing power of 
Assyria,, At wme Lime ilurifig the- eighth or ninth century 3 t u wer- 



Ftf 11. Pirn ^ City Cm-. Tdl n^SuLeb 

ICibi ri«> til Fb- hi-u- {qniFNW -I ih* Fmjii,- tkfcod of M | 

forlras (Hebrew ihijcAU) w*i erected over the- min* of Saul* c*it1e At 
Gibeah, i| the nuthwe*! corner. A doping revetment [Miiirrlni the 
i>uLer wuIIh Thi-^ fortrt - h urn* dc-jlroyrd! befare the end uf the Middle 
frmi Age; filer it was wbuEt. perhAp* «l the lime of Nehuehidmnr'* 
inviiiah. 

Thr heal riant pie of the fortMtMlioni of 4 Middle Iron Age city that 
has hern OBviled in Palestine ri the wall of Trll «&-Nlifcrflfc, with ila 
rerunrkahly well preservrd gate {fig*. SI, £S) , While Use m**|jv4 pro- 





















1 VI 1 AT MTA* THESE STORES? 


tl l«i 


m 


portion* of Ihc duul.Ee wmO. ihc pb-tcrvl Kvelment Jit I3ic hut, mnd ibr 
an era I [ilnn suggested nn origin in Uir Bran*r Age. ujeunttslable 
Dcramie evidence wu found for a date in Lbe Mkidfe Iron A-gt- Bade, 
who with many scholars identified Tell en->-NaibeiJi wiLh Mlipab. held 
Lhat the wall ™ destroyed twice, by Shishak m the Ubw of Rehoboam 
And Agaan by Sennacherib it the end of the eighth century- The 
rebuilding After the Erst d til ruction he Attributed to Km (2 Cbreiudei. 



Flf M.- Ch* Gsui, M rt-N**b*fc. 

fCWl—J W OM ri^io- IbalJIUM U(l th- PuaSl Bcb*i td 


]IJ;i f) Since the idrnttfcatioh of the ill* with Mtlpah » ilouhlful. 
thti exact dating of the ■fan'oiii stage* in the hiatory of the wall? is open 
to ^u^tioiL 

Be that u it nmy, th* great wt gate* which unfortunately had to 
bt buried again after the eieavatiOP. presented a vivid illustraliop of 
many passages in the Bible. It therefore deserve > description in »me 
detail. Aa we have MU already, two mdl of the wait overlap* leaving 
a paauge into the city between them in such a faihlOP that to enter 
a person must turn to the left and espott hi* right side to the defenders 
on the waits. The strong double gate *1* let between th™ overlapping 


cl IH) UaTEMIaL axo SKLLin p^airt™> 140 

portions of Ilf wait (fig.ill. Before lit *as nn open court with & drain 
t^neath ib pavement, and & bndl flf *lone mo along the btK of the 
wall at the wdes of the court ffig. 4S). In the gale-house, between the 
two sets of gates, were alone seals for the guard, In the gateway could 
■tOP be seen. while the gale stood uncovered. the hole* for the ends or 
I he bars which held the doors shut. At the end of the w ait which over¬ 
lapped cm the outside of the? city there was probably a strong lower. 
The massive revetment of the wall curves around! (he outer comer of this 
projecting end. 

The upper part of the great north tfate of Megiddu, built over that 
of the time of Solomon, probably fame from the Middle Iron Age 
(Stratum III), It had a slour pavement ami atone sockets for the 
pivots on which the doors turned. A stone-paved ramp led up to the 
gale in a sweeping curve from the fool of the mound. though not in such 
a way as to expose the right side of a man coming up (o the gate, as in 
Ule approaches to oily gales of the Let* BffOfW Age and Ihr gate of 
Tell en-Naabch. At a later tim#, perhaps when the kingdom of lirael 
hiu3 come to an end and the Assyrian* were ruling in northern Palestine, 
the Walls of Megiddo appear to have bran destroyed. The city was then 
protected only by a strong fortress with heavy walls, perhaps the resi¬ 
dence of an Assyrian governor, 

Probably lo be attributed to the period of Assyrian supremacy is the 
great wilt of Tell es-Safi. often identified with Gath but more probably 
the site of Libnah. Nearly four metres thick. Ibis wail is built in in 
lower portion of liijir stonex, only tho*r at the comers being hewn. 
The Upper part of the wall is made of hrkk, There are no towers, but 
at regular intervals of about pine or ten metres are projecting thastions 
Of buttresses of approximately the same length. The outer surface of 
ihe wall is coaled with a plaster of lime add straw much like wliat is 
Still Used in Syria. AYatiipger point* out the similarity in the construc¬ 
ted of this wall to that of the city wall of Ashur, rebuilt bv Sennacherib 
(WDF rL S) 

At Lachish in the Middle Iron Age a double; nil, with panel* and 
buttresses, waa built over the old revetment of the Middle firomtv Age. 
Indications of destruction, followed by hasty repairs with inferior Slone* 
Add workmanship, lit probably to be connected, as the excavator* 
Suggest, with Sennacherib's invasion of Judah in 701 0. C. The bas- 
reliefs from the palace of Sennacherib represent him as using battering 
tains on the wall* of lachish. The stones in the repaired portions show 


j M WHAT WXAJf Tll£KE RTO>fe5? {II JAM) 

rvid^Dct; of » ™ n ^pmlbn wbtth may b* attributed to Ncb,KW™.r- 
Evidinw of S*n n±cbtrili’l invasion of Juilat. has bwn seen m t lr 
" OavWic" tawt* in tint rampart or Opbcl tt Jerusalem fS 10>). ontir 
| irHC fa(, were hastily rep*.™! in math the tune *»*..« *' ■< 

[„ ihb CM* the ilalitin **n hi idly U KKiidefl « more than pwiH*. 

The w*»t Bute of Lichinh was guarded by ■ tower: it «u m the mins 
of * mom in ihU lower <h*l the Uehish leUenr Wrfe found »«). 
An inner g*to tower of brirk with stone foundations hutem uncovered 
.!« Ju«t inside the inner gate. to the left o one enters, err three itepa 
lending up to « ilowwiy; pauibly this **** Mtm to »n upper itoW- 
From the gale e paved street lined with shops *nd housrt led into the 
heart of the «ly. At Kirinlh-sepher in this period the ,l «*ta were 
arranged in such « way that afl enemy entering the gate would wander 
in * veritable mxtr. 

103. [n |he nutter of fortificalloM as in reaped* hmvt 

relatively tilde material from the Late Iron Age (Imn HI). ^ Mrgtddu 
throughont this pen™] remained an uiiw ailed 1m, M dominated by 
the farirr** built in the previous period. It wal during the I-nt' 1 '™ n 
Age, of Okone* that the walla of Jerusalem wer* mtnred by NtheJm^h 
Several ntletupl* have bftQ made to identify Ms work in vir»m 
portions of the walls oJtcWvated al Jerusalem, bul while some of \h&* 
identification* may be correct, nunc can be accepted wili any confidence. 

The decline in the ttrtist niction of fortiration* which was observed 
already in I he latter part of the Middle Iron Arc carried ore* inln ihe 
rarlicr pad of the Hellenistic perbd, Relatively small stones were used, 
sometimes Hr! In mud pUsfeT. M at Marisi (the ancient MittahahJ. 
Towers, however, seem to have been increasingly popular *nd to have 
been well made. The wall of M*rU* had strong rectangular towers it 
the comers and smaller ones projecting from the wall* at intervals 
between ihe comer*. On the hill top at Samaria a itreng ftew wall, four 
metres Ihitls. was huill during thw period, employing the finely cut 
stones from Ihe ninth century buildings for its inner and outer facings, 
between which there was a filling of rubble. Only along the western 
side is Ibis wall preserved, and it may be that Ihii was all that was tvff 
built. There are three projecting rectangular towers, one at each comer 
and one in the middle- Crowfoot, the director of the excavation, attri¬ 
butes this work to IVrdiecits, one of the generals contended for the 
control of the Macedonian empire- after Alexander's death. According 
to Joseph Up. pL-nliceas fortified Samaria before losing control of Pales- 


rliw> 


MAnnu. asp 


131 


line ami Syria nt the enJ of the fourth pcptvry- ft may I'm-, heiw(vcr h 
that this wall and Us towers were huUi M>pjewhwl earlier ip |hc fourth 
century. Tlirw round towers, mt just OllUk^ the wuthm) end of the 
wall tfc hast b*cn describing. the other two nt different [Mints oil the 
edge of the hill* wcte attributed w-bm fir*t found te the time of Jero¬ 
boam If. bill fllliher study showed that they* nunc from the Hr (ten is tic 
period, prok-dily mi for from the rad of the fourth century, They 
exhibit a peculiar type- of stone-laying which made them unusually wliil, 
Tile Maccalmm itmjjgk' for independent itktlhtcd aluw the forti¬ 
fication of important ilmlcgir points in falntinc. Before the revolt 
broke out Antioch us Eprphanr- Eutd established a strictly I^llcnutk 
elty a I Jerusalem on the hill cal Led the Akn or Citadel, nmf had strongly 
fortified it. The location of the Akn has been much disputed, but the 
rhcsst widely accepted and most probable view pkres it nn Ophel. [he 
hiUI sooth of Ihr temple endosure, where the Bronze Age city of the 
iebtisUef had stood. From Maccabees and Josephus we learn of repeated! 
d^truylHu and rebuilding of tht fortificalions of thr Akra. until SinicitL 
filially expelled the Syrian garrison. broke down the walla, and. if wc 
ffl*y Lpetific Josephus* cut down the hill Itself to a level from which it 
could no longer dominate the temple enelusure. With all this we should 
hardly expect to find much remaining of the forrifie&t km* of this period 
at Jrniiiticm. nor can we wonder that the history of the Hath actually 
excavated on Ophrl is very obscure. A wall of ibout I3U B. C. is 
reported, but where it fils into the History of the site would be hard to 
lay. At the Citadel beside the modem Jaffa Gate of Jerusalem, where 
Herod's palace was located in the Homan period, the Department of 
Antiquities in Palestine has excavated in the past several years a wall 
of very good masonry whkh may Ponte front the time of the Uaccabentt 
kingdom. 

A prominent part in the hiibiy of this period was played by the city 
of Bcth-zur, controlling the approach to Jrniuhm fmm the south. The 
excavation of Lhis rite disclosed foundation wall* of a fortress. They 
form a confused tn*!te, due to repeated rebuilding in the latter part 
Of the IMLenbiUe period, exactly as the historical narratives would lead 
Ui to expect. The problem of diting the various walls is not anplicd 
by the fact that with each rebuilding (he foundations were carried down 
to the native fork, Three phases art distinguishable, however. The first 
on the evidence of coins, is attributed by the excavator*. Sellers and 
Albright, ta Judos Maccabeus* who captured Beth-zur after a fierce 


WHAT MfiJlW THESE 


1.1 1031 


15 * 


tmUlc it! 1US B. ( Tb* smoihI fortres. Ii b*U«Hl If b mvt been Will 

bv Burehidts- ihr KTr in.! of IVmelriu*. who fortilW Brill-wrm U1 
B c Al wm( lime jiftrr ihe reign of An l Lc.'hus Epiphmnci lh>4 forlre»s 
w „ Jrstroycl by fire and rebuilt- Tlir thin! ph*** evident m thr 
FmimUlioni evnvulciJ represents this rebuilding, whirh in tb-? form unil 
disposition or (he foams scums to h*vr been men' mituenetd by t.rciK 
model. than ««re tbe lwe earlier fowls of thr building. 



Ftf a frlmnf Will nr ihr iftASOK $* A 1 *. L* s 


Among m LLiljiry build mgs from Ihe taller pari of th* MacCaW 
pc-ririfS we may niefilii>n only Ihe tastl*. 1 of Atrxaoilier 1.104 -j@ 

0 , Cr) on Qana Sartaheh, a high promonlory overlooking the Jonlm 
valley from Ihe w«L flbaui tmlf bd«tO H» C>«id ^e» lklc 
Sc* fit Galilee, Hffck 1 bad a police Uler at this [itoc*. and until the 
turn* have beep more Adequately raam'med we mftnftt satbfeclcmly 
tlbtluguiah the TtJHiina of the Ufi period QT describe them. Even so 
they convey *Gme idea of * MaccabcAll fort™. pertiAps heller than 
tiny other rums which might, be named i.fig,. * 5 )r 











Lf liH) 


W A TO SAL A .VO XECUIxAH HA CXCJRDl 1 KD 


153 

104. The advent of the Romms VDLlId naturally be expected to 
uiLmduR clk&ii|a in military architecture. The influence ol the typical 
Raman camp with iu precise arrangement. manifestly designed far 
efficiency without regard to esthetic considerations, appears at qnce in 
the fortifications from the wly years off the Roman period at Teh eU 
Judcideh. ne« Bek Jibrrn. A thick wall, built with the small cut stones 
charaettmtie off Homan fortiicatjons. encompassed sn area of about 
one hundred hy two hundred and fifty metres. It was strengthened by 
buttresses on the inward side. There were double gates in the north 
and south side# directly opposite each other, and anothfr pair similarly 
placed in ihr cast and west walls- Guarding these gates, quadrangular 
tower# projected, like the buttresses, into the enclosure instead of out¬ 
ward beyond the wall. Hie two main streets ol the cimp, connecting 
the gates, met at right angle# in the center off the area, where flood the 
residency of the eoaiSnnndLflg officer, previously described (§ 05). 

The rnnaitu of square Roman camps may be dearly seen at various 
paints in Trans jo rdnn, as in other porta of the territory ruled by the 
Roman*. A good example is shown in figure 34. Eight similar camps 
near the foot off the rugged mountain on which stood the castle of Masada 
were doubtless built and occupied by the Roman troops who m 71 A. D. 
besieged and finally captured this last refuge off the Jewish rebels. 

As regards mure solid and extensive fortifications in the Roman period, 
the most important are those built by Herod the threat. As we have seen 
in connection with domestic architecture (§ 95) r the L-'eliniqu* of build¬ 
ing in stone, which deteriorated toward the eld of the Late Iron Age. 
began to improve er the course of the Hellenistic period and reached ft 
new level in Lhe time of Herod, The huge blocks tiled m his building# 
have already been described. We have afro noted the fact that his 
palace at Jerusalem, a part off which la still preserved in the massive 
Cower walla of the Citadel beside the Jails Gale, Was both a residence 
and A fortress. Another important Herodian fortress at Jerusalem was 
the Castle of AutOma^ al the northwest comer of the temple area. 
In recent yean Father II. Vincent has carefully studied the site, much 
of which is covered by the convent of the Sisters of Zion, and has con¬ 
siderably increase'I OUr knowledge of this fortress iRR 1033, pp. S3 If). 
It was built OR A high point of the native cock, rising above the level 
surface of the sacred enttotUFc. Part of the Karp may be seen today 
from the temple area. On the north t dry moat cut out of the solid rock 
protected the fortrau. At each corner of the rectangular outside wall 


154 


w HAT MEA K STO?<tai f 


(11 «) 


w„ a tower < 6 (.* 5 » ■ f'.rt «l* -f tb** is 10 be «r« today. m™r- 

ponied into a buMing oh one of Ih* Miw*- *tr*TU itut north of h* 
einplo att* nmr the Ec« Homo «n* t!«). A *«U»lon of the 



Fi£ W A Sqimrr- Hivnuui ChW 

-f 11* Arf Cta»bh« ta F*™. SQJ* F JlU 


tvmpfc arm ilidf must be iwml for the ■pjroptitU place (ll») ■ 
but rincr the mil enelowng it formed also, at least on tte-e tut * 
part of the dty mil. it U pertinent to remark here that the some typeol 
rnMM-ry seen'in nlher llwdiin buildings 1* immediately rMopmjable 
h<?rc also- 


(I 1W) 


li AT DU AL A NO AKC(.iLA.lt lACKti*Or?fO 


155 


An account of Hwd"* fonifi«lioM would be incomplete without 
bo mr reference to the will and towers hr built lit Sebasl* 
s jm looking up from ihe modem tt»d to the hill ou which ..aRiana, 
* M cno ^e today the IWO Fuund towers which U™ west 

t| the dty in HrnrtTs time. The lower to the rturtb flf l» P lrW ** 
stands on the outer side of the wall; the our to the *>ulh A inside the 
n \\ ftftd the fit*. The tl^at of the lowers foim thu* a ***Tp 



Fif. tl. TW F^Ih AxNiU by Vimml. 1* P- H). 


onijle with the axii «f the gateway, which continues the direction of the 
road. The great llerodtaia wall to which their lowers belonged enclosed 
a much larger a™ than was Covered by the ancient city ou the summit 
of the ML 

Herod Agnppa, who for a few years reigned ovef W wide a domain 
bj that of Herod the Great (§*fi) s emulated the latter to same eileut 
as a builder also, In particular* as Jrrwphus inform* tu. he undertook 
to budd a new city wall OK the north side of Jerusalem* wherr the city 
had spread out far beyond the old norlh «& The Roman gaVrnwicuU 
however, would not allow' AgrLppa to complete ibis enterprise (Jotophus* 
JtiLtik Wan V, iv. 3>. In a hole just cast of the present Nablus Road 





WHAT VHN THESE SToWfca ? 


ill IDl-Jij 


l*S 

A bit of &A»Lvt masonry was tong Ago observed* and th* conjecture 
wai hazurded by Edward Robinson that this might b* a piece of 
Agrium’s unfinished wall. Excavation was finally undertaken by 
Sufcenik and Mayer, with the remit that the cou«e of the Wall was 
traced for ■ distance of SQd metre*- In lftM man working on a road in 
front of the American School 0-f Oriental Re-fr-areh found further remain* 
of the same type of masonry, and liltJc room was Nt for doubt tha| this 
was indeed the wall of Agrippe. commonly known, u the Third Witt. 
Aj we noted in an earlier chapter, however, ihii conclusion w&s not 
reached without warns dispute, since some scholars fell, though nouc:cs- 
»nty. that the location of Golgotha w(j involved (§M), Another 
portion of the wait, farther to the east, val uncovered in IMO back of 
the American School iBASOR W SI, p. ID*), 

I 1 or the student of the Ribh: qJJ this history of micb an extremely 
wo rTdly afiir u the building of FurtilicB tion s may roem quite irrelevau t . 
flcte and there, however,, it haa fcKfcu found to hlsvc some contact with 
biblical history, and the significance of auch Contacts cannot bo rightly 
evaluated nnbu the whole picture Li in view, [t has therefore deemed 
W * K to indude this survey, condensed and inadequate as it IS, in order 
to Understand more fully the kind of information with which archeology 
furnishes us. The bearing of sonic of the facts on the interpretation 
of the Bible urtil appear later. 

Ifi5, Another kind of material concerning which we learn much from 
archeology comitt* of the weapons and tools used in different periods. 
Eicn. ation at prehiitorie Sites in Palestine during recent years has 
contributed a great deal to our knowledge of the implements used in the 
iucf*3.jinc periods of the Slone Ayr. Since these remote times hardly 
fall within the purview of biblical history, it wt|| nut be necessary to 
say much heir about these discoveries, It is mlrfwting to recall, how- 
ever thit implements showing the practice of agriculture are found in 
the Mesolithic period, Jong before the appearance of pottery. Imple¬ 
ments of bon* occur also along with those made of flint, although as 
compared with European Ends bone implements are relatively scarce 
tn Palestine. 

When the finely polished Stone implement! characteristic of the 
hcoJjthjc period appear in Palestine, together with pottery', which in 
other muhtries is first found in this period, metal impiemenU also are 
already known. It has often been argued, therefore, that Palestine had 
m NeoliUuc period. In the recently excavated prehistoric levels at 


{II 


157 


Timrilit- however. a dilUnclion between Neolithic and Cbalrolithie (l.e. 
copper- stone) periods Mem* to be le^uwed- 

ICK! Flint continued lo be used largely throughout the B™‘« A*f. 
ra et*( tmuErmenla being evidently object of ottmdnbl' value Ml lute 
„ Lhr Middle Bronze Age Flint kuivrtl were ™cnl>' *"™ 
into the Middle Bronte Age. Stone mscc-heads nro Wd » U» Ute 
Bronze Age. Flint »kkte-edg« «It used down ifitn Uw: Eirii Iron *1*- 
A »d illustration of mans age-oW militarist* proel.v.tie* may be Men 
in the feel that copper, end later Drome, w«* used for weapons before 
he ini! emploved for the tools used i" P««f“l pUt^uits Ctnsel* and 
hatchets of upper ap|irar ^Juslly in the Early Bronze Age, first m 
forms indicating Egyptian origin and Inter m Anatolian forms. Flint 
gave way gradually to those of *PP" and bronw. In 
EcnertJ it was copper rather than brow* that was used throughout 
what we call the Bronte Age. though in the Middle and Laic Bronze 
Age* brow cam* into more gcflwd It ahowtd lrt jwUd _lb»l l ie 
* on ! "hmmC in €**r tamilur En#rii vmums »f the Bible, » * "in- 
1 nVidialion. The Hebrew word usually mtani **C0fiptr.' »iueljM*J 

A favorite form uf weapon from the Middle Bronte Age amiI «n wo 
a ■tabbing instrument, ranging m length from * dagger to what may 
be called a short rapier. A typical form of the Hykros period is character- 
ii,d Lv a narrow triangular blade with * short tongue f«r in * 4 '" l * TI 
in Hie handle, pierced by holes to facilitate hinding handle sml blade 
together. Another form probably ini reduced by the Hylcsoi has a broad 
handle, of the same pieer as the blade, » moulded th.l p.«« «r 
wood or ivory might be attached on both Sides to provide a smoother 
and firmer grip. Still another type of weapon, one regarded n» the 
spec ini symbol of royally or deity, Wi* apparently brought into Sytl*. 
Palestine, and Egypt by the Kykaos It » a sword of wh.ch the part 
of the blade nearest I hr handle is straight, while the mtlrr port»n it 
curved like * scimitar, Swords of Ibis general type have been found 
at Gercr and H*s Shmmnah. Oil* believed to be from Sbcchem is nrhly 
■Jeuftimled And inlaid with Raid. 

Spearheads of bronir appear m the Middle Beaune Age also. Lime* 
stOOe mould* for sueh weapons have betfl found at some sites, me u mg 
Tell Beit Minim. From thin, time on the hronie as* wai U«d. both as 
a weapon and as a tool. The earliest and simplest forms of ase-head 
have no provision for connect ion with a handle. They were probably 


WTT4T Mlhft 111 L$IS PTOSES? 


:M ]M-71 


I 5 S 


bound by thong* in the eroleh &f * forked stick. Air-beads with botes 
for the handles do in>l appear before the Iron Age. From the Middle 
Bronze Age come some inj ornate battle airs* perhaps designed for 
ceremonial use. 

fn the Late Age Nltlite, Cypriote, and Mycenaean forms of 

Weapons appear in PalttUnt, Long, ln*f-shaped spearheads tfe -chiliac- 
Erristic of this period, as is also a type of dagger with a long spike for 
insertion, to the wooden or ivory handle. Agricultural impIrEneiits of 
brOBXt became faidy common in the Lite ftrunir Age. A kind of 
narrow hoe nr mattock is especially characteristic, Implement* of this 
type found at Ras Sbamrah are inscribed with the iille of the chief 
priest, ideating that they may have been used in w>me fertility Tit* 
(GBR ajfi). Bronze skkka occur but rarely. Down into the Late 
Bnmre Age ■ very andrht type of sickle was commonly used. rtmsist- 
ing of -.mill Hint teeth «t ID n curved handle of wood or hope. Appar¬ 
ently the jawbones of animals were srjmeUmrs Hod fur thii purpose, 
the flint* being set in fcht sockets of the teeth, ft has even been sug¬ 
gested. though with Util* reason, that the jawbone of an iu with which 
Samson wrought havoc in the ran Sts of the Philistines (Judges 22:13) 
Was a sickle of this »rL 

Tht abundance of Hint arrow hr* rU shows that the bow and arrow 
must have been used In War and the chase from the Slone Age. During 
the Bronte Age. however, the bow teems to have been regarded JW the 
d istinctlvd u capon of t he nobility. If was the Assyrians who in trod uccd 
troops of archers in Ftlrtlinc. By the Persian period fL&tc Iron Age) 
lte how had become a regular part of the common sqldier't equipment. 

107 A* bronze displaced flint Very slowly, » aim, iron only gradually 
look the place of bronze (BA i 3 S). That it was known long before 
it became common is shown by the iron dagger of Tutankhamen acid a 
strel balUr-**e of about I4O0 R.C found R E Ras Shimnah.’ The dii- 
m^ry of rlrposits in the Lebanon provided a mSdut supptv of the 
mrla] to uJIuw its osp for tooLi. Mining and smelting were devek^ed also 
in the Arabah, sooth of the Dead Sea (FEQ I WO. tt-4). A dagger from 
about 1000 B.a with an iron blade s|iTJ has a handle of bronze- The 
latter metal Was itill largely u*td f D r toefa in lh« Eariy Iron Age 


, \y ™ Aim*H hi bib yfcf-ia n f^„.J Erraully « Ww d^p/^dk 

r 5 lit F ! UII »- W " L ™ Wwta. Otkrr v^^lr ln» 

Mflrrli hmw bn-11 Fnill A indodina 4 null iir trim Ut IhxI I hf-1 f mrwl 

awE*iiil n <c>ic IT Mil. “ m madr rrain 


(II 1 -rrJ-Hi 


»lltlUL AtfD MCVMM BAdtCHOL^Ef 


i m 

Iron dwrem »•< apf**r. however »« *1* empbvnl for 

anktillunl .mpletnents: we have already »t«l lhr «l*»l <«« *« 

for thl- purpose «'™"* * th ' «?*’ *?**“ *2? 

yirld iron und onnmmls from Ihc tatter hal «f ibe twrirUs 

Lfi| Uf> . Thr (Lltihfe imptenrtllli iron «c*rtted i*JLhe «D- 

trfl | higfcbnrii of FklntUte h n plow-T»lOt &* m 1W0 B ' C * f " u "* 

nl Gih^h- Broaxr pb* point'. runou-Jy wagkp Wn to ^ iVfc “ n 
used nifrtr in Ffctejtfar* thwgh ft few from Ihf K#flv Iron Age won: 
bund nl Kirifttfa 4 Cphcr. PmunuMr ihe pfcw* of the Bronte Age wrt 
tu>l tipped with meUS *t ill (GBH 4*S). 

Ln ihr Middle Imo Arc rt*R|C«i «wi M*** h ™ ds "* " **" an, J 
dckbi or pruning knives of iron nr* fouwL A ehonteteriibc -".piemen 
of this period b a combination of rut .fid adit, on* Made Iwmg fmM 
Ih* handle ami lb* Otter .1 right angles *ilh il- On Assyrian mono- 
unit ihii tool is piclunri » being uwd Id lew down wall* of atone 

” r -Tte weapon! and loul, of tin- Persian period eshibii lw> ntw develop- 
mr.il of any partner .*!>iflcalK* for nor purpose roll 
completely displace those of linoiue r>r cojijwr m the time of the 'w*“ 
bees. In Ilir Roman period a peculiar B™Wp of snml! bort* implements 
may be noted: they Me sometimes pointed, Hrmetimra not. and some¬ 
time* end in the form of a hand. They were peobel.lv Used for apply** 
cosmetics- 

IUH Our dbeusaion of wrteolupoal method ha, already shown Ihr 
importance of poltery for the dating of occupational levels and Ibr 
dr Ur lion of cl tom! ™!>lunship*. The amh-lo*^.■"*■««« Of lh.» 
hUkI would justify a more extended account of the development* m 
pollrrv than the limitation-. <.f oltr i|»M will allow. As it *J™ 
be content with a very brief sketch, indicating only a J= 

the moil Horten,lie form, and featur e each period ?M*J «* 
appear, in the Neolithic period. -presell in *?*£" ** 

at Jrrvcho, If. re simple jars with plain nm flat b**«, *"d 
knoli'bandlr* appear A ml dip. usually burnished, was oftm added 
and deenmtiun with painted bands -me into use ..ear the ^'ifth. 
period. In M-opUlsntU, Syria, and Egypt NVnhth.c eoltore, have been 
ilixuvrirl. !irgmmb|I with monochrome pottery a a xni . . 

or earlier, followed by a remarkable and widcspnmd tmlltiK iuwte-d 
by painted pottery The SMc 

Palestine, however, shows comparatively lillle affinity to that of Jencho 

IX. 


100 


WHAT MEAN THESE PTOSES* 


<1 1W> 


Th* CiiatraljUiat period « reprc-MoU^J in PnWLnc it Telcikt d- 
Glwtoul and »r*ertl other pb™. indudiog Jericho. Beih-aht*,,. „d 
™»' ddo Thr drar *'™ta of Jericho hove iQ rettnt yean «lah- 
h«bed the «xiucn re or the* culture,. Aa might be «p«l«l, improve 

Otrula in twhmquc and greater Variety in form are now in evidence 



F * «- Fracas J IValaJ JVu^. EaHir BhU Pm* (BASOK No. y. 1T> 


£ h Uml , ^ QV " * ’“P “ f «* <'*tt tint i. Common. 

Jr? le^filque andI motive* ,«***,( . ndatiomWp ta the painted pottery 

Wi T r r^ ra 7 r jrthE "' ^ th ° U " h ^ different. 

Ipererd aUo occur*, Small handle, of the 'ear' or ’tag’ 

p"; tlX ‘ p h0,l!l1 " httWat ledgl 

handle, mjappear in Pal«[ti, e and »lv> in Egvpl; whether they w«e 

dtr" S»e JS C U> E f Pl °V"; ,n E * }1 ’ t tl> ii not entirely 

A„ r , ,ar J !ho *' ,hE of * diatihgur.habJe rim. 

Among many form, rhameteriatir of the period mav Z SkZi 














•’ll lOH-a: 


MATCH IA P *STO aSCfLAl BACXOHOUMIp 


let 

horft-slupcd cup*, net unlike uur ice cr**m cones in for m though doubl¬ 
es* Urtii for quite a different type of coated A distinctive Cbal- 
colitbic culture is found Jit several sit™ oil t hr plain of K-ri radon 11 n 
characterised by a dark stay burnished ware which teems Ut have been 
derived from the Neolithic pottery of Malta. Khodcs. a t\d Crete. 

M, The pottery of the Early BlHUe Aye (%. S7) as now much belter 
known than il was a few year* ago. thank* tip recent neavitbw r 



P* *7. TypuriL F<*W i»f the Wj Bwk* Apr ™ 


parliculnrly it Mtgiddo, Beth-ahean. Jcricho, and Ai, and 10 the sludicis 
of Eugbcry and Shiplon, Wright, and others The distinguishing chains 
tcristics of the faur sum:**ivc pha*™ of this period cahoot be given 
here. For the period as a whole the introduction «f the pultei^l wheel 
and the graduall V growing U*r of it may be notrd ** the most dtfUrurtiVe 
development. The ledge handle, in several varieties, is a conspicuous 
feature of Early Bronre Age pottery, though other types of handles are 
known also. The forms of the vesseLi. OP the whole, have a rather 
erode and heavy appearance, Many new forms appear as the period 
advances, such as bowls with rims curved inward, eups with high 








WHAT H LAM THEME *TOM*5? 


(II IOo- Lqi 


102 


loop^iidlm jura with flarinp ftreks mid moulded rim* icnl bowk with 
lhe tint rodimcntiry di*J<b**c*, Except For the form last me®tinnwl. 
[hi- Minin* of the Yik JA-U are Hut or winded PittUrd drnjhilitin in 
lwjllls ’ \mm \M and vivy or a »mpEr emu-fa tchrd drwn ii mi 
tmeom num. 


ICF Duj ™K th* Middle Brail* A^r the potter'* wheel rapir into 



quite P=u«ml U*?. rtm Arid the M*c of o i«f tUy pa*|f mack* p™ibk 
v “ h n f lJl Vt<f y tllin ^nil- 1 h ' ‘’iirfufY WA+ often hum idled by rubbing 
»Jth a shell or pebble. Imitation of mel*| pmtnlypcK produced new 
furmv Dn Ihr wtok I he polled of the Middle Bronx* Atfe k the 
finest from *n> period of Canmiaite hictoiy (%£&). 

IhjA-l-i wnh 1 enimRled " profile, i. e. expanding from the bottom upward 
■ rnJ then, nlwjut half way to the [op, liim% *hnrplr inward, are 
Eypi^l of the period, a* art aha vox* with flmrtog fool uri rim mul the 














ill 1 la-31 * 


3rfATTHFAL AHP WTCLAK OACUlilOU** 


103 

cnrEnnW profile Jan are more slender in form than in the Enriy 
Bf&nie Age: I heir nrckt become loader, And I he bottoms of jars am! 
jllgi are often pointed- Ring-base* aim appear no* for the Aral lime. 
An specially characteristic vn«] which is first found ill I hi* period i* 
Ihf Urge jar. brer'll near the top aJad thence curing in waft! IP a small 
rounded bottom. with two loop-handles at \h* larges! part and it short, 
narrow neck. From Tmve on this type of jar U M commoh In BUrstim? 
and Phoenicia that Wallingrr calls it the Semitic iimphum (WDF i. 
40j. Jars of similar form, but with four handles, are found also. A 
distinctive type of Middle Bronte juglet, of Syrian origin and associated 
with lhr llvksos invasion, ii made of black, wane, polished and deeurnled 
with patUrtU in rows of punctured poinli Thi* is known a* the Tell 
ef-Yehudtydl juglet. hecatLIe quantities of audl jujsItrLa were found at 
tk HykiOS tile of that name in northern Egypt- The shape is much 
like that of a buy - * spinning lep; there is a small burton-base, and the 
handle i* nltnoil divided into two hy a longitudinal groove. Another 
characteristic jjuglct of the Middle Bronze Age is buff eel color. tlfttlfT 
in form. With a. painted bottom and a pinched month like that of a 
pitcher. Cooking p*U wilh flat bottoms, nearly vertical lidn. and rim* 
dcCo fated with a moulded design apjwar during Ihb perbd. The firtt 
day lampi alto are found in the Middle Uranic Age They are limply 
■inall bowls with a slightly pinched pli« in the Hill to hold the *iek- 
Some of them hare places for as many b four wicks, A few snuill 
vessels of the bluish green ware or faience common in Egypt at I his 
time have been found in Fklcsline, During the second half of the period, 
somewhat later than the first Hyfcwa wares, a new type of pottery 
appears, ft h decorated with pictures of birds, fishes. *nd Itrtf. and 
comparison with MoiopoLamkn prewiucts suggest* that this new polleiy 
was of Human origin fEHR, li)- 

HI. A potter's workshop of the Ute Bronte Age Ms hern found in 
a cave at Tell ed-Duweir {LachLihJ. It contained a *6one seal, a lime¬ 
stone pivot probably used for the potter’s wheel, sherds worn by use as 
Loots to <mnfli h the veSscIa on the wheel, pebbles a fid ihrlli n hirh had 
doubtless served as burnishing implements and a hoFie point with which 
incifed decorations may hav* been cieeuled. 

On the whole the pottery of the Late Bronze Age {fig. ») « <»* 50 
fine in ware or in form al that of the Middle Brow* Age. Painted 
decoration, however es considerably more common, meluding both 
geometric designs and pictures of brfdi. animals, fishes, afid trees. 


1G4 


WtlAT MEAEf TJIIH OTOHESP 


(|1U> 


Strong fcmiffn influences- especially from Cyprus now become evident. 
Jitr fcmth to importation and I* imitation of the Imparted vessel*. Con- 
ipjeuous a ccii j 114 £ the Cypriote types h the almost hemispherical 1 milk 
hovV covered with b while *!ip and puintd in fcaadj of the ladder or 
Hattie* design, and with * hnftdlr shaped like n "wish Ixin-c. 1 There are 
til-Kji pitchers, the lower parti of wfciich closely resemble Ihn 1 pi ilk-bowls 
except that they hue r&ig-We*. K^nalJy cknrlend it ntc jag* with 
hug neeka Coflect at a curious angle) ftJid handles icathing from ihe 



Fif tA TrF»l Hotlrry nf llif LUv BfW Afe in Filatin* 


upper part of the lieck tn the shoulder. Another typical form is m flat 
jug, much like oar water-canteens iu libpe, and commonly known 
unions archeoInsists hj the pilgrim 4 ! Bask. The flat, ^jdc* are decorated 
with etincentric ring*. 

At about the middle of the period, dearly marking the division 
between its two main phase*, Mycenaean influence become* evident 
in the pottery of Palestine, having clearly come by way of CypTUi and 
northern Syria. One of Lhc me*t characteristic of the Mycenaean vessels 
i* the HKtllrd H stirrup-jug/ * mlbef tquat form with three handle* 
reaching Item the rim lo the top of the body- Cupi and goblet* of 
Mycenaean form and ware may alio be mentioned. The lamps of the 
fAte Bronte Age have the place for the wick pinched in somewhat 











<H rn-ii] 


ii+TtttiAL ANP WPCtTJ.il Bjcpco^aujrja 


m 


more Oiin Ikh of tht Middle Biunif Arc. Separate stands For lamps 
are Found alio, bolh in ctsy and in hrouie. 

I li. The line between the Brun*e AjK and the Arc of Iron is sharply 
marked by a great and s^ddi-n dehudo ration in the quality of the pottery. 



FVi. Mt PhdntiM Ttivun. 

There i* one exception to this rule. coniutinj oF what has come to be 
known u Philistine! pottery (fijj.30). Both the- lime from which it 
Comes and the lirritaiy in which it II found support the ascription of 
this pottery to the Philistines. Its marked affinity with Late Myrtnaean 
pottery is what migtl t be expected rn the »W« of the Philistine*, with 
their northern cultural connection*, nor doe* the fact that th«e type* 


















WHAT Ht£AH THESE STOSE9? 


tint) 


145 

have Iwen shown to be imitative and oefcctk rather than iruparted 
controvert ttii view (Hrurtfey. qDAP 1934. pp. m \ ID). the 

most charactemlk form yf the Philistine [»U*rrv La tie deep bowl with 
two upturned horizontal loop-handles Jug* and goblets of the krmler 
type i» also |immmpnl. Ah especially popular motive In the decora- 
I Ion ii a swafi wdh jta bead turned bad* over it* hdj'. pimping its 
wIdje ipirtls uuj checkerboard p* Herns in common aUo- Thcv 
degOntllDEUI arc placed between hoHiyfital rows of buds* and further 
separated by vertical row* of lisa. 



Fi* SI 7j|i>*3 Fatifiy *i thr Ijibf 1™°- ^1* »* ftfoatia*. 


[it the central highland* t hr pottery die Early Iron Aye tell* a 
different rtury. There is* much sharper break with the Iradilion* of Use 
Late Pri>B4U? Age. and as already indicated it is a chaise in the direc¬ 
tion «f poorer rather than better pottery (tig. 31). Such m sudden drop 
in Ok cultural level, as evident in the maeonty and in Other tripetU M 
ft it in the pottery fit* » well the irruption of a cvr# and leu 

civilized people that *'r can hardly be wranR in connecting it with the 
invasion of the Jjratdtle* from the desert, where for a genvralion they 
could have had Little opportunity to cultivate stlrh aril, At Kinath- 
fepher. at th* southern end df Ibe highlands, theft w** a pre-Ffailkliiia 
phaatp the first o! Level E. in which th JWmi Wefe still those of Urn 








■ I fa 1 £ t 


_"i I ATJ.ILl.l L A5TJJ hAL k<jH4l['N D 


i a: 


LnSr Bhiu/r Ajr, but the Lradilkms of that pfrid ai npnis thrort* 
tioii wer* Lust. 

Everywhere I hr urnarrH'ntiitiofii of the Iron Aj[f jxillcry i* simpler 
I be cl that of the Lute Brotiie Agr Aside from the PM1 i*l inn pottery* 
pictures arc scarcely Used at fill The is «*fKr, aRil thu 1 form* 

■.re midff than Uiow of ihr prrCCTfbiiE period* Bowl* miuI vuet ho 



49 



K*. St. Lamrp -,ilh IVJrd*] Ml 4 JSfvm |M, hihI IVLtm i!niK t 
je™ arW (BAHHK No TO. PH TO) 

lonjccr hive Um 1 gfACvful carinatcd |ifr>BW of the Middk and Lntr, Protua" 
Agn, Inn arc ihortur ia proportion bi thr h 1 Lainrlrr, and ill? l.«rK<d 
Jiulncttr u oflvfl HIT tile bottom, The umphoru and I hr to ur-haudled 
j*rt of the wine- forat have tint ter shoulder* ami idiortCf neck* than IhuH 
of the Bronze Age. A evil La red rim h chafaclcrintie of the large ntortgv 
jit) of this period. Driji IkiwIie with ami iwu handle* iliuE 

cooking pots with two handles and found bottom an; tv pica! Early 
Iron forms. The bump* of the Early Ston Agv have 
Some have high bases; ttiftir *l*u have ptai^* for m-itp wink* 

During tkfcp period bumhhing with pebbles canir Wk into use 



WHAT MEAN TtltSm STONE*? 


4 111 ) 


im 


after tainfi abandoned m Ihe Lit# Broftic-c Age. litlk bbiek. 
htghK' bu miahcil, nw common i n Israclilr Iflinbi. In lk tenlli century 
ib*' practice- known jls rfrftbliniifhbjf WM dfe'efoptd: this coftsist^d of 
hiding a pebble Chr shell agamst a ve^-1 find moving il tip nr down 
vrhilc' the Vrwtd wb* rapidly turner* nil the wbw-t. ihii" producing a 



Kit W Pottny iSk M*W3* Iran Aff in Pultun-. 

ipiral line Cif hanwhin*, much u * phono^h recoid h ™dr b> the 

"la the Middle t«n Arc («g.S9) Iht handle! of J«i were often de«r- 
ale4 with two parallel- kmgtludmMi Tib*. Characteristic of this peno* 
jj ihr j*r {fig.iB) with mtind bottom. almn&t straight stdw, and note- 
mouth ' (i r *- fin Owning somewhat less in dkmrier than the Sop cl the 
j* f And surrounded by * Hmi margin} A form especially «™™ LEl lh * 
Middle Iron Age is (he goblet. Polished black jtigktt eonbmlr to appear 
in dightlv different form Bowls with a ml slip, ring burned. art 












(It Hid*? MtTT^IAL AWfl eEC1, r I^R PACKCHDt?fD W 

wry numenHiif- The ring-hum idling of ihb period is lifter th^u that of 
thi- Early Iran \£r, Bowls acuI oilier open vessel* arc AmmonEy rin«- 
burnishcd on the inside only in Ihh period- Lamps fmiumlly have a 
high base or fool; the plaec far the wick M pinched in much fflof* than 
tn previous periods 

113, The pottery of the Persian period (Lute fr«n Age} is hard tu 
dbtinguifih from that uf thi' hMknisfcie period which follows (fig. 34). 



F* H, TjjM Pelltwy d tbm UU Jmn to Plk*»* 


This b partly due to the fact that imported Greek wares were naming 
into Palatine from the sixth Century on, and especially during the 
fifth and fourth cnlurin. The IWutL ef the Babylonian conquest of 
Judah it the beginning of the Laic Iron Arc b apparent in vessels erf 
distinctly Babylonian Form found at * few sites in ttutheni Palestine 
The araphoHS assn rued a more slender form in the Late I ton Age. 

Intensive study of ceramic development* m Gms?C ntl d Other part* 
of the Heltenbtbc »crid has made pGttjhle in recent year* a better 
understanding of the Gtwk types of pottery found in Palestine. The 
Rhqdian amphora with large handies, attached to the neck instead of 
the body of the vessel and stamped with Greek letters, became vtry 










WHAT 11LA.V TEEEFiE KTOJfEfl? 


(I im 


1711 

common in Lhe Hellenistic period. Siglii 31 slender Hg^i of peculiar farm, 
wilbaut handle*, swra lo hive taken, the place of live? tarlier juglels in 
the Ffdlcnislic torn Ik. Highly polished and well nude bench find pbita 
of finr wart* urn- t»V be«D in Fulr<titir. Blur Is mu I ml figured At Ik 
ware became familiar nl«i, The dilfae* and kfli of this period were 
oflrB dmimled no the in-dik\ 

Lamp* u ei iIrrweiit a pronouueed change in farm during this time. 
Ip I he Hellenistic period the rittl Mi pinched m Tor Ihr wiclc so far 



Fie U N‘dtwl*e»ii I'ijUtrj 'H.YSUlt No fl-T. v Hj 


|h*t Ihe TP met; moulded lamps, mark in Iwo pirt^s. came into use 
also. Thr lypical Hrilertislic lamp call be dtHtHgiiuhnl from the Iftmps 
of subsequt-Ei i period* by Ihe king rtrek provided far the *iek. 

In the Homan period thr pottery rcltictf mnspkiaoiwJy the graving 
cultural homogeneity of the Graeco-Roman world. Ribbed afire. rhnrne- 
trfifed by regular row* of parallel hori ion La I utootch from top lo bfiUam, 
is faned in cooking pols, jjlh, and other simple VmcU. Finer 
both imported and imitated, finch u the highly polished ml terra 
Mffittata. found all over the Roman empire, appear in Fnlcsdne also 
A distinctive type of pottefy found throughout Soillhem Transjordan 
ic Ihe extremely ihm NabUfrran Ware (fig. 341. painted with designs 
in reddish brawn on a light ml puhd and alio to mine extent 
1 mU letted,' i. r. decorated with designs impre^d <n I he clay by n im.nl I 



(If 115-liJ MaTEKIAL AMO SECTJl-AH iArtKIUL’TO 171 

lulirr-liltf instrument- TH* lamp* of the Homan period srr rqutrdcr in 
.,l,ii jH’ than those of the preceding Hellrnbtic or the ewimg Ilyza n t i nr 
ftrnsptk They Anr uuiuldtcl with in lia«-rHwf r including human 

and other figure. 

114 , In addition to pottery, vessels and utensils uf other material* 
arr found in Hticmva Lions. In the Early Bronze Age lempfe of Ai were 
ToUtld Egyptian alabaster vcmtIi and ivory ohjwt* Iwhmging to the Snt 
three dynasties, preeedihg the age of the pyramids. Fmiu that time 
on vessels and object* of ivory And Alabaster appear m almost every 
period. AUlw^r vessels were especially coutnum in the ilykso* period, 
due to I hr close connection between FsJi-stme and Egypi at I hat lime. 
They continued to be imported in the Late Hnnwr Age alw. The fofnl* 
hrtfay the influence of Contemporary styles in pottery. In addition to 
small jars. of which in thip period had handle there were shaLLow 
bowl*, homp provided with stand* or f«|. attached or separate. In 
Egypt during the Lute Bronze Age the production of glass vessels, not 
blown but moulded and opaque, was flourishing. Some of these have 
hern discovered in Palestine. Fine examples of beaten gold work have 
been found at R*s Sham tall ifl northern Syria. 

From lh* Early Jron Age conn a tffuiip uf brume lamp* Found at 
Megiddo. They are in the form of bowls supported by tripods. One 
of them ban a stand jTpfr^ruling a nude woman playing a pipe £$ 172). 
A bio cur lamp found At Geicr i* made in I he afclgw of n bird. The 
importation of alabaster iffufli was almost wholly discontinued In the 
Early Iron Age. hut was resumed in the Middle Irad Agr. when Israelite 
culture had attained a higher lerei anil commercial relations with Egypt 
were revived. A tail, slender form of alabasLron with rounded bottom 
la characteristic of this period. In the royal palace at Samaria was 
found a large alabaster amphora tearing an Inscription and two ear- 
touches of the pharaoh Owrkun II (about Hfltt B.C.). In form it 
resembled the pottery amphoras of the period, A characteristic type of 
the Middle tmn Age, which hi* hern called tlu unly original Israelii# 
form of alabaster vessel. Is a little rouge put with a flat rim decormLed 
in geometric patterns. Vessels and other objects of glasH appear at this 
time at Samaria. Bronze and silver bowls, moreover, began to be 
imported during the Middle Iron Age. 

In the Late Iron Age alabastra of Egyptian or Phoenician manufacture 
and also bottles and rouge pots of glaas were lined, as shown by the 
gmvrs Of the Persian period at Athlit, on the coast not far south o! 


ns 


WTtXt SkL&AM tJStfer STDXflt? 


ill IIt-ID> 


Quft. The f;Eul begins how be more Inin ip* rent Lhin formerly. 
A grave of this pend at TdJ d-F«r ah has yielded irLiitir biQn^ 
utensils, including a ittvt with n handle ending in n duck's head ami 
Milh inlnid silver decoration. Stiver bowls ol Persian style hive been 
found Hi Ihr same site and Hi Grief, rarmblrag bronze bowls from 
northern Syria. A silver dipper from Tell chFarih has a handle repre¬ 
venting the body of a girl. wbw outstretched hands hold the rim of 
the bowl, while bet head is raised a* though to see her rdlcftuo in (he 
bow(. These objects are dated in Ihr late fifth or early fourth otntuy. 

In the HfEkniilk 1 period Ihr alfebasler industry whs supcndrl by 
the growing use of glw, which became even more popular when (he 
art of glass blowing was introduced in the Roman period. Vases and 
bottka i*f AJewndrUti and Syrian glaM now become very common. 
The glaM industry of Sldon W|« particularly famous. Quantities of Ihr 
so-ralM H t«r bottle*." tiwd for perfume, ointment, or oil, are found 
in graves of the Roman period, exhibiting considerable variety of form. 

US- By the study of aU these and other facts it ts possible to Inure the 
developments from one period to aunthcr in «o douq life, industry and 
commerce. In aU periods the economic basis of life in Palestine hat 
been predominantly agriculturaL There is reason to believe that the 
cultivation of wheat originated in Piles Line or Syria in the Mesolithic 
Age (N'cuvilk, JJFES 1034-5, pp. ivn-alii). In the Chalcolithic Agt T 
if not earlier, the domestication of animal* was practised- The culture af 
I he vine and of fruit trees was begun very early, Egyptian source* ftf 
the Early Bmn se Age refer m the tig tree, the olive tree, and the view in 
connection with Palestine. Many ancient place-names include the word 
for vineyard or the name of I fruit tree, The annals of Thothmes ff|. 
mounting his invasion; of Pelicstiire in the lair Brume Age. refer to the 
fruit trees in the vicinity of Meglddo. 

The cultivation and use of grain are shown by small miHltolKS Tor flour 
which are found in the excavation*. During Israelite time* these Were 
of a very Simple type, like thoae still used by the peaaaata of Palestine,, 
who readily recognise those uncovered by the archeologist*. Large grain 
pill were found at the Early Iron Age level at Kiriath.-Bcpher. The 
tenth century calendar-inscription of Gticr records the principal farm¬ 
ing operations of the wcceuive months. The practice of bee-keeping 
if illustrated by a jar in the form of a conical tuve found at Tell 
en-Ma*bch. 

PtS6»rt for oil and wine »ft very common. The earliest type of wine 


ill 115-IB) MAimTAl AlTD MO ! LAB BiClfiaOL'N!] 173 

ptr$* tot a hdtawcd •out place in Ihr ruck for Lradinj; L hr 

ft«p0, with ft cbnsc! to cuavey the juice to a vat at a ^Lightly lower 
level The ' cu|] hol^i' and which ire oTIfu found in ihbi of 

lion* Of the (Uffirr of Ihr native ruck, and which have puzzled irthe- 
okigiiti rauidenbly in the past, art now thought by many to have been 
used for pressing olives and ntractimr Ihr oil. Olive pita were found at 
Lachish an such quantities aa to indicate that Ihe cultivitios of the 
olive and the making of olive oil formed a major industry al that city 
in the Middle Iron Age. Betb-shemesh also seems to have been a center 
for this industry. More rlaliorate oil presses became known in the 
Hellenistic period, and in Rnmin limei n type of olive mill still used 
was introduced, consisting of a round upper stone roll trip in a circular 
groove in Ihr nether alone. 

Spinning and weaving were undoubtedly done al hnme by each family 
for itself in the earlier periods. Spinning whorls of atone ami bone, anil 
loom-weights of stone and clay appear commonly from the Early Brnnzt 
Age on, A business document of about l&ftu H. C- found al Nuxi in 
northern Mesopotamia mentams Ganaanile wool (AASt>H x% b. No. TJ) 
By the Middle Iwn Age il would seem that the weaving and dyeing 
of rblh hid brromi- an important industry it certain pUeri. Elaborate 
inatallAlbnii of dyeing van were found in i great many houses of this 
period at Ktriath-acpber, At tachiih alio a similar weaving and dyeing 
establishment his been, uncovered. 

Aa observed in an earlier chapter, the use of metals, involving mining, 
smelting, anil transportation., produced an industrial revolution. Egyp¬ 
tian doeu menti shuw that the copper mines of Sinai were being exploited 
in the Early Bronte Age. The use of iron has been noted as a factor in 
the military superiority of the Canaanitei and Philistines to the Israel¬ 
ites in the time of the conquest and settlements of Canaan. An early 
Iron Age smithy, with heaps of drqss, we, pieces pf iron. ami imple¬ 
ments, Was found at Mepdtfe in the iim excavations. Neither 
copper nor iron w*s mined in western Palestine, but evince* of exten¬ 
sive iron and copper mitring and smelting in the Early Iron Age. have 
recently been discovered in the Arahah. south pf Ihe Dead Spa {GOSJ 
JO ff> h and an elaborate smelting plan! has been excavate^ at the site 
of Solomon's s^ajjorl, Eaion-gsber {ibid. Sfi If: BASGFt No. 7&, pp. iffi 

114. TiVath all tbU went active and calrnrive cummrrrf. Thr prr- 

1 llw tcifiHpr Til, pp. Ill f 


WHAT saxATi TiitSfc iiTuKPb? 


U im 


m 

vikhCt uf (BftinctWc type* of pottery and other object* ever Wide inn* 
even in the Slone Ape shows far reachmg oimmcrciil inlrttoUW, Jar* 
uf I be Chaleolithic Arc bearing ths im pres si oru of cylinder seals of 
Mesopotamian type have been found *1 Megiddn and Jericho. Jewelry, 
pollery, alabaster vi*r* r nod o-th*f artiHra attest the commercial activity 
nf the Early Bronze Ape. Especially mli-resting in this connection are 
clay models of bor*e* and one of □ covered wagnn found at Tope GaWtm 
in M^jpolamiit. Egyptian and Baby banian documents of the Early 
Brorn Age CODUlln abundant rcicreji™ Ic commcrcr with Syria and 
Aulotift, GeM l>tef W-wm a* By hint on the PhiH niclan mavL w M 
nh uuLxlantjinp fester nF trade- Further *wdenra uf > • -Ji.iiif jci.iI r» In 

twus is aEfrnled by the line* of Eariy Hiome sites kiw Galilee and 
down the eastern mI^l- of Tramjonjan, undoubtedly marking cars van 
routes between Egypt aFul Mrsupotaiuk, The Mart Imbtrts (g ASK) 
evince close comwtimi with Mesopotamia, northern Syria, Cyprus, 
and Crete <%rm xx. IlftH- Thr Middle Bran re Ape witnessed a great 
cspension of commerce. We hlTO already observed that Epjyplifln 
vcsvcls of alabaster and faience wrre very popular in PaLr-Jilinb during 
thi* period. In tbr fair Hrnnre Age Cyprus and Myomae became 
important sour™ of cultural influent* through the medium of commerce. 

The Israelii e conquest temporarily mlerniplcd thru? contacts to a 
considerable cxlrnl, but toward the end of the period they were revived. 
The biblical jjvcuIWI* of Solomon** commercial enterprises at this lime, 
arid of the contacts between the kingdom of Israel and the neighboring 
nations during tin- Middfe Iron Age, are quite iu accord with the End¬ 
ing* of archmliigy, Evidence of trade with Arabia is afforded by the 
jar l>cnring letter* «d (hr South Arabic alphabet ^fig. SflJ which was 
fowod *1 Ezion-geher (GOSJ 105-B) Egypt Jan. wares were still abun¬ 
dant in FnJtxEtnr during the Iron Age, hut the Influence of Babylonia 
Wfli less strong than ill the Bronze Age. The Babylonian invasion and 
thr drntmclion nf the kingdom of Judah near the beginning of the Late 
Iton Age caused great demolition and impoverishment. *nd the restored 
Jewish community of lbi i Fenian period wan poor and smalt. The 
Phoenician cities and their colonics in the coastal plain of Palestine, 
however, enjoyed a great commercial expansion during this period. 

During and after the Babylonian exile the Jews who had been 
deported from Judah were evidently able, at least in sums cases, to 
attain a reuiuitemblc degree oF prosperity anti influence in the Baby¬ 
lonian and Persian empires tfeluvmiih, the cupbearer of Artaxcrxes, 


4i \m 


surrnm. axd rkcvuh iMCKcnoE^o 


its 

k * cm* in point. A ^roup of Nt^-BiiljylonLiin tablets published by 
Hilprccht mid C!iy nnla in i tin- businrKS iwoTdi of n pms|H<romi Jewish 
rtunfuiny, Muruhnhu anil Stns, at Diskfnn in the lime of NfbemWu 



> 1 * 96. Fragment □ i Jix with , 1 >.njl.h 1™-^*., (rani i'a#oii,.«rliTT 

{IIlit NV 7 k p l=>, 


Buck an early di-moDstmEwEL of Jeukh oliilitv to take rmtl mnL HoUmli 
in an ilitn cnvliDnnurat ii di-ciilrdly iniprfssivc, 

[n the first part of the Hellenistic \H- rknl. under I he Ptolemies. Pkles- 
line was fairly prosperous Ikith Agriculture and commerce seem to have 
Ek wished. The abundance of iWiffn nnfi especially Greek h ibo»* 
that trade was V«y active. Extensive cokmijuilion ami the esUhbsh- 
metlt Of typical Greek dties imiurully created a demand for imports 


ITfl 


WB.1T UEA^ mn ffTQSH? 


ill HUT) 


from Europe. A lively wine indUiUy. for exaTiipIr. U indicated by the 
quantities of stumped Rhodian jar biUldtea found at such silns as Maris*. 
Thrrt was also * thriving trade with Arabia* India* and central Aid*, 
coming by way of the Red Sea add Mwms the Sinailk peninsula to Gaza, 
or Lkraugh Ihe caravan cilia of Tnnijardan In Dnhwcm Under the 
Sririitid rulers after 1&ft B.C. coadittacu were less favorable, Warfare 
iiwJ insecurity,. almost incredibly rJWfhitint tmtioft, and the repeated 
imposition of heavy tribute* sapped Lhe iraur™ of the bad. The 
Maarabfan kingdom enjoyed again a greater deg ret of prosperity. 
During Lhr Roman p«igd also the Gentile cities in Palestine were great 
centen of trade. Exorbitant taxation and corruption, however, bore 
heavily on the people. With all this, Palestine was si ill. a* always, pre¬ 
dominantly a land of agriculture and small villages. 

117, Ckiaely connected with the growth of commem mas the develop* 
melU of systems of weights and measures and media of exchange 
Mesopotamian ciriliiatkili was highly developed in these respects at a 
very aariv time. The Nuriafi* of the Middle and; Late Bronze Ages had 
h standard copper unit of measurement which was kept in the city gate- 
A jeweler's traits and weights have been found at Etas Shamrah in 
northern Syria* and the system asmjiHM by them corresponds more 
doady to that of the Old Testament than to that ef the BabyEonknn 
Stone Weights found in the excavations are ioimrtimes marked with the 
Hebrew nuaci of the units of weight they represent (fig.ST)- At 
Kirkth sephtr w*j found a scries of stone weights of the seventh 
sixth century. AH Ammak papyrus of the sixth century found in Egypt 
records a contract for the renting of a field on a crop-sharing basis, 
and several unmet of units of weight and measure known in the Did 
Testament are mentioned- In the Hellenistic period weights made of 
lead and inscribed with Greek characters were Used. 

Silver, measured according to weight, served aa currency already 
in the Bronze Age throughout wt'stcm Asia. Even in relatively late 
limes, however* trade often took the form of barter. The stamped, jar 
handle* common tn the Middle Iron Ago. together with the lax receipts 
or memoranda contained In the cstrsea found at Samaria, indicate that 
lain were often paid in Oil and wine, and the Jats of standard BH 
used for this purpose may have served also as a unit of value far other 
purposes. A jar inscribed be mlk r found in n house of the Middle Iron 
Age at Lirhish, and part of one like it ml Kirkth'sepher suggests that 
the unit of measurement known as the ‘bath 1 wai standardized. and 
these jam contained a " royal bath/ 



m in-ts) 


If ATEHA!* AND WEHVLAM BACKiiHlirpD 


m 


Not untit the Late Iron Age <foe* cofoid money upifwiir- Th* first 
coins used in Fnkstine wtrc ba.n*4 oft Creek models. CatOa stamped 
with I be Hebrew let tern yM, i,0, Judlh, and issus.nl More tire end of 
the Fenian pcrk>d, hmr* hwn found in Fuleslinr, showing that tire 
province of Judah enjoyed not a IpM.It nnlonomy under the Pcnktt 
government STJ _ Jar handle* damped with lln- fcirnre letter* -i^. 
Itcpl thnt the fuibm of ihr Middle Iron Age uilb rrgapj to lire ^'Lvntnit 



1% 91. loifritrfiL RtisiiP U'dgfil, Tell ea. ?i*fliel* I ElASCiR SV #±, y 3Cn 

of Uses wju -.nil folfowrd. Corns of the Ptolemaic and SkStudd, rtckfi 
of the Hellenistic period, atid those of ihe MnccaW*. Ifofod, a cut Ihe 
Jfomiio procurators and emperors are very eomiUOft ifs^ 3S) a 

118. Archeology affords lLiLh for did-ctmiliihg conditions u rr^itsls 
education, literature* and ihe urtn. Kvhn al Ihe time whm the Hebrew* 
first emerged bi a distinct people t Ire luliofts of amtiirn Asia were by Ho 
means living in Lbe (±wkfl»t of Ignotmnoe and barbarism. The eivilixa- 
lions of Egypt and Babylonia. a!ready ancient, had not only developed 
Ihrir own Byrtcmi of writing but bad also produced considerable tardies 
of literature. Within tire ym\ few genera Lions archeology has greatly 
enlarged olar knowledge of the ea Hy history of writing a ftd hn s recovered 



WHAT MEAN THESE STQttEfc! 


Sill®) 


ns 

much of ib-" literature of their people*. together wi th abundant record* 
of a Duti-fiteniT rbaraebcr. The olde#t forma of the Hebrew alphabet 
in pflrtkubir have been flhuninatad by recent dheovpkj. 

Wr HOW Lnaw lhat the- Writ Semitic alphabet in more than one 
form wa* I viitfi urni ill Falcatme am! Ettgbbcmng lands some time before 
the days of Wosrt. Thr Babylonia Jtt and Egyptian* had pc-Hesscd 



F if S* InUh Lnii.j from Bethd T0ASOH S'o. » r P . 4}. 

olbrr lyaleiUM a thousand year* Wore the lime of Abraham. tf Mo*ei 
*M> &* Sltphm ^ya, * lenmed in fl tL the w isdom of Lhe Egyptian^ ” 
SAe^U Tijfii'k fe* wai doubllciH well aeiilltmled wriLh the hir-roglyphu - 
chincLcn and with the hieralir of Writing which bad been 

Jevrtopt il frems thi-ni as much as two thou wind yean before his lifetime- 
Al Byblos, whetr Egyptian jnSuctH? wa» Mnmg. hieroglyphic in scrip- 
lioiu of the Midrib- Dnonjce A^- have been discovered. Inscriptions itl 
hirrogly|ihiri hmve found Jo hlt ilint ntm, t\ g. at Bcth-sdirnn and 
Mrsiddn. sUiuinp I hit! the €nuiiEiiu?j of the Late Bnrne hail at 





m 


[% ]!■> M^TPHIAL 4315 EErVLA* ftACKMHTfro 

Ic*it seen example* of this strip! made hy Egyptian invader* and garri' 
lop*. A seal foetid fcl Bathe], in fact, showing the figure* of a Conaanite 
HL>d end godik**. give* the name uf the tatter. Ashtert, in Egyptian 
character* (fig. Sfi) + 

The Babylonian system of cuneiform ^i. e. wedge-shaped) writing 
on clay tablet* was oquitty ancient- Originating unsung tk Sumerians, 
il was adapted by the invading Semite* and Used for ihrir language, 
the Akkadian, It was also taken over hy many other peo iplea. either ±9 
the duly *y*lem for writing their language* or a* an alternative to some 
other ay stem of their own. The Akkadian language it wit, moreover, wia 
commonly employed a* the iittffajfl /rmracH of the Brem?* Age for bLtsinfss 
and diplomacy. 

Thk kind of writing also was known hi Palestine as tariy ai the 
Middle Bronze Age, a* ahown by the «■*! of Atauab-ib + found at 
Taanarh. Tablets with eufleiforni writing have lieen found in Fair** 
line, though not in latge quantities. At Taanaeh, one or the firlt rile* 
excavated in Palrtline, a collection of fifty tablets of the fifteenth cen¬ 
tury. found at the end of the first campaign, was left in the Jump-heap 
and recovered two years later. The Tell el-'Amaraa tablets, found by a 
peasant woman in 1M in Egypt, on the site of the royal capital of 
AkhcnntoU, show that Canaanite prifirr* of the fourteenth century, 
writing Id their overlords, the Egyptian pharaohs, used the cuneiform 
script and wrote in Akkadian, the language of Babyfo&U, A tahlet of 
this period found by Blttl at Toll el-Ecsi in Fftlr»litlCr The practice 
of writing do clay tablet* was a most fortunate one for modem arche¬ 
ology, because these tablet*, being almost mdralniCtlbW, axe preserved 
in great q uanti tie*, while documents written on mure perUhabfe materia la 
have rarely survived outside of EgypL We have thus a v«y full picture 
of the life of those peoples who used the Babylonian system. 

The Hebrew alphabet wa* not directly dcrivpd from cither the 
Egyptian or the Babylonian writing- They were cot ilpbblk: the 
characters, when they dkl Pol stand for whole words vT Khei. repre¬ 
sented syllables, though the Egyptian system included aL*o signs for 
single consonants. The early Canaanitcs too had a system of syllabic 
writing, as shown by inscribed bronxe object* found at Uytilo*. These 
have not yet been deciphered. hut thr number of H|U used ihows that 
the script must have been syllabic rather than alphabetic. 

Thcre was alio, however, an alphabet constructed of sign* made with 
a stylus on clay tablet*, a* in Babylonian writing- This cuneiform 


1B0 WilA? mon hizee stores? ill 11B-1P1 

alphabet wb uvd IIS t he tabicLa diicoVfKd in iwtat yun it H&r 
S hamruli in mirthcm Syria, A airigte table! inscribed id the same 
alphabet h^r. been found at ffolh-ahrmesh afo>, showing th.it this form 
of writing was known sis PniraihiF. Some i^hoEar? b*vr supposed thal 
Ik Hebrew alphabet wu derived froth this syalrnv but that h unlikely. 
More probably the Has Sha mrah script is mlaptatioii of (he dpkikt, 
which was already known, for use in writing on clay tablets. The more 
famiiiiir scrip! was not suitable for thia purpose. It was much more 
■diptni for vrriling with ink on papyrus id was doubtless developed 
chiefly in such- use. 

SUII Olher forms of writing were known in I he lands adjoining 
Palestine before Ihe Itsur oT Moses. A script as yet Uttdedphcred appears 
on the monument found in 1091 at Balu'sh in ancient Meath. 

110- The immediate progenitor of the Hebrew alphabet was on* of 
which L-iinrtples from Kvcnil places are now known. The fins! td be 
found, and perhaps Ihe earliest, were dUcovered early in the present 
century by Sir Flinders Petrie at Ml. bfoaL This form of writing in 
Lhmforc known ai the Sinailic or pml^Sioiitic alphabet. The inwrip- 
lious al Sinai eomr bum Ihe eightoecilh fir nineteenth eentttry B. C. 
At intervals of n e*rlimy or two after that come several examples of 
ihe mme or a dosaly related form af the alpha bet m Palestine itself: 
a poteEjerd from Geatr beating three leitert. n small limestone plaque 
from Shcchem, the blade of a dagger, a ewer. and a bowl with saaenp- 
! foes From Lachiih tTcll ed-Dsiwrir) h a gold ring from Megfrldo, an 
uwenbed potsherd from Tail ehH-Cti and another from. Hcih-sEietncsh- 
AH thru- demunilrale that the West Semitic alphabet in sis earliest 
forpsi, wia used in Palestine during the closing centuries of ihr Middle 
Bronie Age and throughout the Lite Brant* Afr, i.e, Usraugh the 
greater part of the second millennium before Christ. In other words, 
for hundred* oF years before Ihe lime of Moses (hr Canaanit? Inhibi¬ 
ts nb of Rtlr-'lfot: had nut only the Fgyplian and Baby Ionia n systems 
but aho two or three alpha be ti af (heir Own, developed in western Asia 
for writing (he ianguoffei of the Cinaansln and reeled peoples. 

duit where, when, and how this alpha be Lie writing orijfjfoii I *d we 
ranpot be sure, Some believe thnl the ^ioaitic tn sc ri|i I ions are actually 
the first to have been written in this w H y. According to (hr theory 
prapftiusdrd some years ago by SprenfltiHg, a workman in the mines 
where these inseri plfotii were found dev bed the alphabet on ibe basis 
of Ihe remw a hln f sign, used to the Egyptian hieroglyphic system 


4| !(#} WATZHJAL AXb lfL<. TUH MCKCHOtXb 1^1 

from this point of origin the Alpkkl i.Um spread to Artbil md Phoeni¬ 
cia, where it developed into the South Arabic and C&DMUUt* forms 
respectively. Whether all this be Imc or not. it seem* faiHy certain 
that the consonantal signs of the hi flfOgl yphic script afforded the pattern 
by which the West Semitic nElihilwt was constructed;, and the basic 
idea vis ulmt is known as the icrDphonk principle, This that 

h picture of mi object was used to reprint the con sonant with which 
the name (if that object began. Kof instance, if we inppotiO the! an 
American Indian wished to construct an alphabet, and if we further 
suppose, for the salto of raaveuirace, that our Indian spoke English, 
he could u*e a picture of d bow to represent the letter B, a picture of 
A canoe to represent a picture of a dog tn represent D, and io on. 
Thui the originator or originator* of tb West Semitic alphabet adopted 
ai the sign of the can sonant UTepA. the heed of an o*, 'tdrph bring 
their ward for 'ox 1 as in Hebrew. This sign. which appears aj ^ at 
Sinai, becomes ^ in the PWuieian alphabet, anil finally (turned almost 
upside down) our A. Whether fii the tetters Were formed on this 
principle is not certain, hut that It was the main basil of the alphabet 
though questioned by some scholars. seems to the writer indubitable. 

That the principle was borrowed from the Egyptians is equally dear. 
Alan Howe discovered recently tW certain groups of apparently mean¬ 
ingless signs on a group of aOiraba in Lhe Cairo Museum could be 
deciphered by apply rag the acrupbanic principle, and that they proved 
to be the name* of ddtka. Fwm this Ecrec inferred that this principle 
was originally dcvbed by the Egyptians as a secret way of writing the 
names of the dcklic*, which, like the name of the Hebrew God. ware 
regarded a* loo sacred lu h* uttered (ET. April 18^3), How much of 
this theory is mere conjecture and how much fact the future must tell 
In liny cbm' I hi.' forma of thn- Sinujlic letters closely resemble some cf 
the hieroglyphic character*, but what was used in Egyptian to represent 
one uund became in the Semitic script Lhc sign for a different sound, 
because the Semitic word for the object of which the sign wu a picture 
vn different from the Egyptian worel and began with a different 
consonant- Thu was already me n by the eminent Egyptologist A. H, 
Gardiner, who mad*" the 6fa I beginning in deciphering the Shui Lie 
inscriptions (Journal 0 / Egyptian Arefitology. Itlfl), 1 

* Tt Butin- t fh”T f'lrp-H 1 "? drr Alj^mbirtr. lEflTI ■rpari Hint Ihr dptvibrL hr* imsba-Ny 
UlVTTiind! tX PjrlAn I, ]SOI 3l 0|F SinH^k ■fn*' 1 t»-i. -l£ .mil a JtfflUrl I ,.n,,i1hrt, 
lie jJl£l jflim Ihf f u|i!vii:: u uJ fclir ■ttilubrl Tlw iSrPLI aEilpIl uE ilk! FLiHfnieiui 


ISi 


WeaT taCArt tiie*e: ErfOSCS? 


(Il ItMIS 


ISO. Many inscription*. efp«*aUy from Phoenicia and northern Syria H 
ta*k* rl peuiblr |u iftif the development of Ibc alphabet until il 
OMUmtd like- foms used ml the lime uf itbe pn^fll, the form which 
ipjmn wllli Mitnr ir*rralw.h in fchr Monhitc Atonic,, the Siloam inscrip¬ 
tion. and the nine* of ?vimari:i and Lo-chizh. A* eariy ns the thirteenth, 
rrnlury the forms of the letter* show a cUrtivc tendency. SLi^tsliD^ ljut 
the i[flD«uUm copied the letter* used by ^riba who wrote with 
ink. Thr a<ttwrp Aramaic character* now used for printing Ilf brew ware 
not adopted hy the Jew* until the Persian period, when Aramaic began 
|o iup*r™di- Hebrew as the apuken language of Palestine. The Elephan¬ 
tine papyri show this form of the alphabet u used by Aramaic-s peak tnji 
Jewish colonists in Egypt in the fifth century B. C. 

In Lhe IJdJenistic and Roman periods Greek became mora and mot* 
the language of government and commerce. Greek inscriptions Alt: 
inuL’h more abundant than Hebrew inscriptions in Palestine. The Macra- 
beau coins, however, evince a nationalistic revival of the Hebrew lan¬ 
guage for official purpose"-, using rm archnjc form of the Hebrew alpha- 
bet. The Romani, of course, brought with them the Jjlm Language 
alwi, hut the Latin inscriptions of Palestine nmdst largely of brief 
military notices, such as appear on the Roman milrftoitea, Ossuaries 
(S IfllJ of the Roman. period sometimes bear name* in Isoth Greek and 
Hebrew or Aramaic forms, and there k one important inscription in 
Aramaic from the first century (i to). The coins of the Jewish revolt 
of GtKIO A. D. t like those of the Maccabees, are inscribed in archaic 
Hebrew character!. 

Hi- How many of I hr people could rend and write ici each period 
if a difficult question. The quantity of letters written on day tablets 
throughout western Asia in the Bronze Age shows Una there must have 
been already a very Evtly Correspondence, both local and intemational, 
commercial and diplomatic. Numerous coiLtrarU. deeds, and similar 
documents, including a contract and a letter fmjtid at Shechem, show 
that writing was commonly employed in fcuuinps* throughout the terri¬ 
tories influenced by Babylonian civiEiution. while majTEftge contracts 
demonstrate its use ip social relations. The tablets were actually 
written, however, by professional scribes, and the signatures of the 

AIpJuLet fjwa iJk Sraulic i qaevtiofua B, Nukr (IPOS t*M, p f]S} ut J Obn- 
™“ fJAOS CMfch^t 5™ No. *} *!*>; il i. Med by burtncr (PEQ ISM. pr 
lll-lli>. Pot k |Hk| IhWlAraE of thr wlwk tufcjM m chftjP. 4 (Vr John W. Ftisktl 
lt« Revr*i mJ SympcwuM m md eli BJdt. 


fl HI) 


MJITIOHAL ASD S3K.1TLU PlACKfUllJ.L’SD 


IBS 


|jnj-lii s asiii WitacDti t« the UuHHCtioil4 wrrc represented by the impntf- 
siaftA of their seal* in the clay. Wht-lbr the people who iiEHitd thrir 
M >i|i could read the document* for ihemselvr-i we rtinuol say *\\h 
certainly It baft been suKRtutcil I bat the " young man '' of Sacttth, 
who “wrote" far Gideon the jrfnCH and elder* of ihr city, fw 
a scribe iGBR 1*0): if nut, the fart that Gideon could fi*d a young 
mjin who wa» ah!^ fa write indicates a high degree of literacy in the 
Early Iron Agti population of Tm&ajonUa | Judge* 

On the whole faminlf seem* to have been ■ prerogative of the priest¬ 
hood in the aitc-ienl Near East Many tablets rcCOld rcliftious 
including myths and liturgies, There were wrhools. attached to the 
tempts Lh Babylonia, and Ihr same thing »a* line in Syria. Two 
schoolrooms, with rows of lynches remarkably preserved. have been 
ettivslnl at Mari, They come from about Ihr rnJ of tin- Early Bronze 
Age- From the Late Broils Age we have- Ihr remains of the peat 
library and school for «Ttbe« at Uprit [ Rat Sham rah) . The table!* 
found hero include leu Li in a number of different languages. Such 
schools were conduct mJ in Egypt also in thin period. The groat tempi r 
known as the Bamesaetim. for example, which w«* built by Raineses II 
at Thebes, hud attached to il a school, in Ihr nitlW of which have been 
found many criUta inscribed with the tsercutt of ihr *L-houlbayi. 
These o&nsjal of extract* fmtn thro# well known book*, the H Instruction 
of King Anu-nenihct," the Ll Instruction of L)uauf r H and the “ Uymfi to 
the Nlte,” The same books atr given in complete form by two papyri 
of ihr *am* period, probably from Memphis, the Papyrus Saltier 
il an d th<* Papyrus Anastasi via. Their loo consist of schoolboys™ 
writing eteititt*. with Ihe teaehrn' Comctimi in the margins. Another 
\>npjrus ccihtjiinA a book describing the curriculum of an ancient Egyp¬ 
tian school. 11 included not only edifying literature like the books just 
referml lA hut also forms for letters, Irik of grapaph ical names, and 
terms used in business and ordinary life (’EEl- 105 ff) ■ ^omc of Lhc 
Asaymn wnnarohi of the Middle Iron Age look an interest in accumu¬ 
lating archive* and libraries. Mitch of ou t knowledge of Babylonian 
litetaUin? and rcUgjun comes from the eopic* of Babylonian tracts found 
in ihr great library of Ashurbnnipal at Nstieveb, Ashiubuipil] 1 * interest 
in learning k explained by the fact that, like Other younger sun* of 
emperors, hr had been originally prepared for the priesthood. Ancient 
Sumerian tent* arc often provided with interlinear lrwn*tal inn* in 
Assyriaa. 


TS4 WHAT HUK tllli&K ; | If 1} 

Thi- oitna of Samirin and Lnchiih iJJimrM* the uw Hebrew 
alphabetic writing far cormfiondrlux and officMiJ buiincM in PiWlidt 
during the time of Ihe Hebrew kingdoms, Bm Um f bowtver, Uk writing 
wai daubileLt done for the moil |mrl by prof editorial *erifert F and It 
vru! dune welt. Sucb a scribe wan Rnrueh. lo whom dcteFntaSl dictated 
lik hook (Jeremiah $U:4S . Seals [if this la'fiml found in Filetlifte bear 
the names and ink*, of [heir owner* in the Hebrew atpliahcti. cul with 
great iskdl and su forms having it [imnoiLkired nrtntic appeal !flp. S9) . 
An inlcrcslijig diwovfry at Lachkh luuy throw some light on Hebrew 


4 


x m 

u 


ft*- *■ SmI v* Jolham Irani Bi4w-xH-* i|l ^SOR. No. T&, Fl*. S), 

■•duralkin eel |br tunc of Jcmuak On unc of the rftt-pn of Ihe pakic 
w «* scrihbli-d thr ftn| fiir Writer* of th* lirbn-n alphabet in Ihc onkf 
fandliar to nJt itudtfJlts of Hebrew today. The excavators suggested 
tbal thrw' let lore may liave been writtm by a schcwliboj'H in which case 
the alphabet must Imve been taught in M-houl* at thk time. A passage 
ill one of the Lachkfc, k-Ucre [Ill. St f) k taken by Torcayner as a 
disavowal of the ability to rrndi id her whularp. however, interpret It 
diffemitly, and netllirj- ihl r rprelnt win is certain. 

Thr writing desk of n icn'bc of the Prreiau period was found in 
Egypt a few years ago. 1 1 culiakls of two bpaitk hinged together and 
**■ ikubtlfi^ held on the scribe's b« h he wrote. In one of the 
Ihi-ttiJi Iherc hi 4 liltlc cup I in hold Ink. some of w hich actually remains 
m il «>1 klilird -I ale, There it a I hi a groove for thr rrcd«i used u pens 
A few Aramaic characters are legible, showing the language used by 





i ll in-il MATDLLAJ, ALTO JUEC1J LAI, BA'.-tUkOU VD 1&$ 

I lie «riN ud indicating that he wrote m^manudfl, or perhaps tried 
oat his pens. an the desk itself. Pictures of scribes using such desks, at 
perhaps tablets of rimilar farm, nppcir an tn Assyrian relief of the 
seventh century and on the Bar-RekuL stele of Zendjirti. Galling sug- 
that the use in Jeremiah of the Hebrew ward dcUi, J door. 1 

for something an which writing wits done may point to a hinged writing 
Labial of this type (GBR W4J, If bo, the same explanation will apply 
flllo lo m much discussed .sentence in one of the Lachish letters. H 1 have 
written on the doof" (LetlrJ- IV, line 3). This is certainly more 
probable than interpretation of the word as meaning a 

column in a papyrus mil. It t» at best however, only an interesting 
possibility. Probably the cxprt**km tefcn literally to writing on a door 
(JAGS hi PP 401-5). 

The Aramaic papyri of the hfiiSB period from Elephantine, the 
leather documents referred to below, and the mtiumrrablc Greek papyri 
of the Hellenistic and Roman period** like the clay tablets of earlier 
centuries, indicate active correspondence an the part of ■ great many 
people. Ht fc too pmfcaabiul scribes were doubtless used to a consider¬ 
able Brteat, as they are in thus day in the S«*r East; many of the letters* 
however* ace of such an informal and intimate character that they must 
have been written by the correspondents themselves—husbands writing 
to their wives, schoolboys writing to their pucstl* and the like. Hep 
colloquial style and the frequent errors la grammar and spelling con¬ 
firm this impr*saioft. 

Moat of the writing in Pakatiuc during the Iron Age was 
Undoubtedly done with ink on papynil- This fact is responsible for 
Ihe irretrievable l*A* of ail the most important documents of the time* 
including the original manuscripU of the books of the Old Testament. 
A pathetic reminder of this loss is the day Impression of the seal of 
Credaluh. found at Lachish* still showing on the back of it the marks 
of the fibre of the papyrus document to which it was affixed. The doCU- 1 
ment itself b gone beyond recall. It |i fnrUlnate for ns that the Uckuk 
letter* were written, un potsherds instead of papyrus. 

Another material used was the skin of animals. A group of fettn-ra 
from the fifth century written in Aramaic Otf leather has recently been 
discovered and will be published by Mittwoch. A scribe pictured in 
an Assyrlati relief of the seventh century holds in his hand a mtioSI 
whkh may represent either bather nr papyrus (GBR 4fi5). Kmtn 
about the end of the third century the usr of parchment along with 


I Ml 


VUT »EIH TlEtrhC STOyK? 


IM ! «-*) 


P*pyrtl* Was quite common, Both maU'mlx were used in the form of 
rp?Ei; the codes $i.t, a hound k*>k with leave*) did not ame into use 
until the second century A-I>. Sir Frederick KruvoU has pointed out 
Lhiit while classics! fiwfc end Human literature wa* ordinarily written 
nn srmjli down to thr fourth century A. !>., thr great vellum manu¬ 
scripts in codes form, as rxcmplitird by thr Codex Vaticanu» and the 
Codes Sinniliruj, mark a distinct traniitinn ill the method of book- 
munrfteLorfeig which came about at tbU liw Thr biblicil papyri from 
the third and wfliul it n Lurie’S, however, show that the form of the 
codec W*M Used much earlier for Christian literature especially the 
flihlp. I hart it war lor pagan literature i KSB 8S-S). One is reminded of 
the Biblr's place in the early history of printing. 

123. Moil of the tablets* <jsLnwn. and papyri are letters or buxine** 
documents, which cannot be claA-icd ax literature. Along with such 
materials, however, we End oLhrr* of a distinctly literary nature even 
in very early periods. In Egj-pt, rypedilly in the Middle Bronze Age 
(Lc. bi Iho Middle Kmgdoffi, and in the New Empire of the XVtilth 
and XIXth dynasties, which followed the dark ages of the Hyksos 
period)» there wns great literary productivity. The materials preserved 
nn day tablets in western Asia ik include abundant evidence of the 
fact that writing was employed not only for the practical concerns of 
daily life but alio for literary compulsion, To be sure, the historical 
annuls of the Babylonaan and Assyrian rulers, the codes of laws, and the 
liturgical texts have little claim lo be cUtuilicd as literature, buL many 
writings of a mythological and theological or ethical character may he 
so considered, Some of these have an important bearing on the Old 
Testament and will be discussed more fully m other connections (§§ 

1M1. The Kmidegendary historical litntttfW of Babylonia was known 
in the west, at is shown by a tablet from Mari; in fact, the story of 
GilgsmEsh wu translated into Human and Hittite, The fact that 
copies uf the Babylonian myths of Allapa and Ereehkigal have been 
Found in Egypt,, among the Amama tablet*, makes it certain that these 
toyths and doubtless othera were known |r> the Canaanites. That the 
Canaanitcs had *i#0 m extensive my thn logical literature of their own 
is nn* proved by iht tests km Baa Sharnrmh. 

01 ftHme, jjust as there may be writing without literature, there may 
also be literature without writing. Many of the myths, poems, liturgies, 
and laws recorded in the documents we have been considering had 
doubtless been composed and banded down In s^nil fi ms, perhaps for 


ill IfMi HTAI^BUi AHti lll&rLAK BACtUitoL'tfft 1S7 

Centura*, befei* they were put down m writing. The same thing may 
have happened among the Hebrews *lw. The fart* which have jusl 
b*eu briefly reviewed shew that thriv never Was * pqrkd in Hebrew 
history when it was not --jIiIh’ la pul into writing im FriedLately laws. 
historicaJ record*, poems, or prophetic mes^gef nl thr moment at their 
composition. That this was iJwip or usually tk»m\ especially in the 
earliest periods, does not follow, NW i* it clear how many uf the 
people at Israel were able to wad in own wpjw of (ud) writings. tVhat 
if quite plain is that the ability in rcad and write wu an aveoniptiib- 
ment by no means: eiceptincml in Egypt and wfstfFn Asia from the 
Early Frunze Age Lo thr Uumin period* 

Science, aa we understand the term today, is commonly thought to 
be a distinctly modern development, though some foreshadowing of it 
in Greece may hr ■iJmitlrd. The Greeks, themselves. however, had 
gira L respect for the ancient wisdom of the Egyptians and Babylonians., 
and archeological discoveries have shown that there was good reason 
fat this attitude. 1 Without modem methods or tcutrupu , uli or a modern 
scientific aim. a great deal of knowledge- in the realm ■■( astronomy 
was acquired by the Babylonian priests for the purpn^ of fixing the 
rrligiuus festivals. Astrology also, which ir still with us, wn> aloudy 
rullivited in the ancient world, promoting a close observation of the 
movements of the heavenly beditn Mure surprising have fcwen dis- 
ro varies of the high nuthenutical attainments of fcaolh Egyptian* and 
Babylonians. 

In the Hellenistic and Hunum periods the astronomer of A lean mlria 
had developed refined methods for computing (hr elate* of eclipses as 
WeU as the regular equinam and aoUtkcf, Medicine, following the 
example of Hippocrates, had become much mm scientific than in 
earlier ages. On the other hand, quantities of |iApyn record ing charms 
HUulrmlr the continuing popularity of the black arts Ingenious mechan¬ 
ic** contrivances, including the hydraulic engine. Were known to the 
Romans. Remarkable engineering skill! is avine-cd by the Roman high¬ 
ways which bound together all parts of the Runyan empire, 

IS*. Along with Literature and science-, the art of the ancient world 
is disefused by archeology In speaking nt polletj and at vess^k and 
i mpit-mcnli of other kinds we have already had occasion to rwHv the 

*'T’r. k. A. SjvocT. H Attnenl MnopolLniia aii>J tJw Prpnvinigi *4 iSf-iriiet " id Sljufirt 
m £4a *f janfj EU«i» nsf F* Pim 1U11 pp. I I] 


m 


WMaT SJEA5f THJEfil STOSEB? 


St lit) 


artistic qualitie* of lhe*r products. It mill not be nerasary to «pat 
heir what bu hern M(d *n these miUm, Areh LbrtLUrr *1*0 will be 
Ocbdal dturr variate types nt budding are discussed th other *=t lions 
We shall here bp conormed with nth*: forms of art, in<■ Il|i tmn painting;, 
moults *cu!ptltrt p gem-cutting. nnd jewelry, A few remarks wjjl be 
made iib mi mmk alao. 

Lhe aft Hjif palnLiug goes back into the Slone Age. While PaMtinc 
has nuthm£ to compare with the CAvrpiinlingi of Fniice, it 9 
entirely tacking in Stone Age Ait In l&St picture*? of mtlffllll, r*|iceially 
the ibex. were diflcovfrtd al Kilwri in the desert of eastern Tniftijordtii, 
iiicKd on the surface of the rock (GG&J 43 ffl. Figum of ran and 
animals have been found scratched on the paving stone* of Level XIX 
(Cblcoliltk: to Early Bronze) at Mcgtddo. The decoration of pottery 
aflordfd one of thr chief opportunities of the artist nf Neolithic and 
ChaEonlilhie Limn. We have also the mural paintings of the Chateo- 
lilhMr settlement at Tcleilat cl^GhasiUl in the Jordan valley. Fainted 
fifi the plastered inner surface* of the mud brick wall* were elaborate 
[h‘wEgn» and human or divine figure* in several eofor-i, One picture 
slewed a remarkably lifelike bird. Simitar mural paint mg* have been 
found in a Neulithk village nr*r P?r*epuli£ their were wIkp moral* in 
Teja: Gawea XVI; hut nothing else of the »rt has yet appeared in 
rales tine. It is hardly tu be tuppjMl, hanw, that the art here 
exemplified was practised at this onr place only. 

The palace of Uw Middle Umore Agi- at Mari, had elaborate mural 
frescoes with pa neb, borders, and well nraitd figures of men and 
duties, lit Egypt almost incredibly skilful painting Waa done before 
3(M>9 B. C. Early Bronze Age paintings have not been found in Palatine, 
but in the latter port of the Middle Brow Ago the palace at Mrgiddo 
decorated with frescoes in several colors. The work of an individual 
vase-pakler (or> more probably, school of pudnlcta) of the 10th century 
hap recently been identified by Ueurtley {€JDAP viit. 31-37), For the 
greater part of the periods covered by Old Testament history, unTor- 
innately, we have practically nothing to show Us to what extent or in 
whnt forms the art or painting was practwed in Palestine. The painted 
tombs al Mori** and else when exemplify I hr introduction of foreign 
art in ihr IfrEleiuatic arid Roman period#. Fine mosaic pavements were 
tnade In Lhc ttomah period. The raiEiesl found in Folc-stine come from 
Roman times, but late Hellenistic ones, some of very fine quality, have 
been, uncovered at Antioch in Syria. In fact, o&e room in the Middle 


m i 


mattwal aw kclxa* m*ciKJ»oujrp ISfi 

BmrUc Age [uIih it Mari had a pa vemrat of Huh«th Hi in line, but 
vtlhoul any pattern in colors. 1 

IS5. The art of sculpture h doubtless as old m palming, The bead 
of a bull carved in bon*, found in cme of ihc cavti of Ml, Carmel, 
drM?M*tflt** th* rxiaUne* of cuJ*--d dr labia artbUc ability in iW MrtO- 
lithie Agr. Clay figure* wero fmod in the Chidtolithk stmta at Jericho. 

umt of the peopjci of western Asia sculpture Ml ilodf had 
reached a high Ji-vrl nf >kill by the Early Bronx* Agr. HUlun of 
Sumerian kings in Babykroia are sometimes remarkably wdl mid* and 
lifelike. Thai the influence nf Sumerian art had penetrated Afiinritc 
territory is ah own by itatues found at Mari and elsewhere in Syria. 
The influence of the extraordinary sculpture of the (JEi{ Kingdom in 
Egypt seem a not In have made itself felt as yet in Palestine, but at (hr 
Phoenician seaport of Gvbat ( Il_vbtos) it was already very strong. 

Representations nf deities made great use h >f lb<- ■sculptai-'* art in the 
undent world. The frequent prohibition of idols in the Old Tefrtnttiettt 
rEn ph»?rar* the fact that they wen used by ihe Cauaamte* and Other 
peoples. Iti Tsd, then is abundant evidence in the Old Team men t that 
the Hebrews themselves were not always above idolatry, linages of 
defile* fnijtid in Pales?inc will be discussed under the head of ttnd 
objects <§ 141); suffice it here to remark that they appear first in i!lp 
C haktdithit and then in the Middle Bronze Age (§144). Ordinarily 
Uwy do not represent ■ high level of Artistic achicvrnicnt. 

One fine example of ifube-cirving from the Late Bronze Age has turn, 
excavated m Palestine. Thu is a basalt stele, found at Bei^n. repre¬ 
senting a dog attack i ng i lion. It betaftp to a type of sculpture familiar 
in northern Syria and wii probably imported from that region. A very 
crude effort to Tcpresenl Ihe human face and fnrm appears in tk anth¬ 
ropoid clay coffins of the Late Bnoufe and Eariy Iron Ages, found at 
several points Erv Palestine where Egyptian influence was strong (£ I A*) r 
One of these which has recently been found at Lachish bars a poorly 
executed ioacriplioa in Egyptian hieroglyphic*. 

The representation of a female m if fcian in Ihe Early Icon Age 
bronze lamp-stand from Megiddo, already mentioned (§114), may be 
recalled hero as on example of plastic art. A BUTKO* conglomeration 
of %ures is promoted by a portable brazier of incrmc-bumer of day, 
about three fret high, found at Taanarh. Lions .mil sphinxes. supers 

■ V. WuO» OXOfi IBM **W0) u™ the of moatui Ce U* A*jh«i l.i^LknU. 


WHAT MEAN TKE&E STOJCH ? 1 


i ll IfMI 


100 

jui^ATiJ ici five frgblert* ip^nr in relief «i the sides. their kadi 
protrudLflg beyond I h r front of the object. On the front LI it presented 
.1 I rev with Q gnat an either aide. as Will as a man and a serpent. North 
Syrian ifBuitiri are evident lel spilt: a! Ihe crude native workmanship. 

iJuiiijp the Imn Age, uidf from the- fifiirinf* in day and bronxe 
irhich continue to be abundant, examples of iuylhin|{ which can. be 
■rlflssified n i sculpture are rare in Pauline. An interesting group of 
imall brvmle* from IJil- Late Iron Age. Egyptianiring m style, wai 
f i n i ■ k c I r few yenm ape at A ska Lon. It included figures of the sacred hull 
ii ud of Uli Imjdmp Ihe infant Ho run At Tell ejs-SaJi were found day 
buita of women um\ Cypriote aUluctln of the same period carved in 
sandstone. 

With the Hellenistic period and the eiUMijlimcnl of Greek colonies 
in Palestine examples qf firvi-k sfulpluir might be expected. Some of 
these have been excavated* for temple hi Samaria and llelh-shran. but 
only a few. The soft Limestopr of Palratmr Wa* not wrU adapted for 
this purpose. and doubtless the importation of good marble was ripen* 
*W. There must have* been many mm Uhie*, however, thin have 
survived. The best were perhaps carrinl off by Conquerors. and many 
limestone MalUM may have been broken up and burned for lime by 
I hr pnunU of lnb-r erhturirs nr destroyed by fanatical Moslem*. The 
paority of such RDUini from the Roman prrirwl aLiu.t must be similarly 
eipbiinel Mune tpecimrliH have bwen pn^rv^l in Transjordan, for 
iuifcjifice at Jcrash. than in vrriltrtt Palestine. 

I iff, We have Aet-n that carvings in bone appear even in the Sterne 
Agr. From the Middle Bronze Age come carved strip* of bone and of 
ivory feu- the inlaid deration of wood™ base* nr piece* of furniture 
Thhs ptiuiice may wA[ have bren introduced inter Syria and Palestine 
by the H vitro* invaders. For She most part the inlays bear simple 
designs of LLfle* and circles: sometimes they are curved in the form of 
birds heads, From this period may come a iprxm^bndlc of bone h 
prriihp* used for Cosmetics, which fria discovered at Beth-iur (fig. 40). 
It represents a am i with LipraiW arm and Extended forefinger, executed 
in .i stylr which only partially resemble* Egyptian art. 

Fnfimenta of an ivory hex of thv Ute Bronte Age-, with daborttO 
pielori.d decora tiu el in Egyptian style, were unearthed by Petrie Jit 
Tell d-Kartth. Megiddo ha* yielded an extraordinary mHevlinh of 
Aiimff i^-'ory pant K fmm the e-ml of the Late Bronze Age or thi- beginning 
of the Fairly Iron Age (fig. 11). Similar objects, though not all of the 




mathpuai. axu lEctrUkM iAncdtuuiw 


F4( W CwiMnirr Ct^mirfjc Sfrtm Brlli-nir IflASOR S«t 43L }k 0-r 


Fltf, It. Il-ko Cpi*-irUifl flota! Vf i-|;s-li li> 

idPWL™? at Ll« Otkh'hI KulJliiL* ul nh* thitwdr •* ChUm^} 










tfl2 WHAT MEAN TREES STONES? (| $ KiHtT? 

lame period. have been found ii other places* aot only in Palestine and 
Sym but at far iwij a* Gree« to the northwest nnd Assyria tnd 
Bahytank to the mil and northeast. A remarkable group of ivories 
from the Middle I foci Age w** found on the site of lie paket at Samaria 
They f»H into two main groups: thorn carved m flat relief, with e»t- 
mg* of gold leaf and inky* of red and Wot gkaa, ami thou caned m 
deeper relief, tcmeiiniea open work, with some gold bul no colored 
inky. Egyptian and Aaayriaa records indicate that in the late Bronrr 
and Eariy Iron Ages wild elephants wen* plentiful in the region of the 
Euphrates (PEQ IMS, pp, 44&), 

Phoenicia evidently developed a style of its own in this form of art, 
combining Mesopotamian, H tithe, and Egyptian influences Mycenaean 
northern Syrian, and Hitffte ichodk of carving in kory emitted also in 
Ihifl period. The Phiwnickn work was carried abroad by the Cot&meiTr 
for which the Phoenicians ire famous and the ninth century ivories 
of Samaria show that the tradition! of this art were maintained with 
little change tor several centuries A ligdifioint fact which has been 
pointed out in this connection I# that^ to a considemblc extort, the 
Egyptian influence evident ih the Samaria ivories hi Hot that of the 
conlcmpoTiiry Egyptian art of Ihc Middle trufi Age, bill rather that of 
tbr earlier forma live period of Phoenician art, a* seen in the twelfth 
Of thirteenth century ivories of Mcgiddo- 1 

187. So far u our cvidrflrr goes, the one form of art in which 
native Israelite cnftimet) attained a high degree of proficiency was that 
of gem cutting, u uempliftrd by Ihr seak which have been found in 
Palestine. This is trne particularly of the Middle lion Age- In earlier 
timed two types of Mala were Uied, displaying respectively Mesopo¬ 
tamian and Egyptian influence. Seal cylinders of the type commonly 
U«il in Babylonia and neighboring lands where cuneiform writing on 
clay lableta wa* customary, begin to appear in Palestine ill ihe Middle 
Bren** Age. They consul of small cylinders, pierced hingiludinaUy and 
rose mb] ing thin, spools, with a deaign or picture carved on the convex sur¬ 
face in *uch a way u to make a rectangular pand-like impre*!km whrft 
the cylinder w*i rolled on the -oft clay of a table! (fig. #f), Thr 
arliitic motives employed on these cylindera are of great importance 

L rn™r-,.-.t c£-irf|r h'fi i f r f* wm Sammria, SVM-< dUmp »Ti*i ik* u-t erf Lhr Euhiu 
I™? * that vt ik tin 4 f*hl* ktafht in by tk i*vim rh .ikk |«ad , 

bal flajnrtE (FSQm. 1 TOJ qucrtuiu thk AHin^t maul* Ik « pmnuJ enaimfrit*- 
trila} ibl lk iiiiUtT, *4 ik l*Lw nwia n. 4 llvpomia I nn apt Km f uHi I untu tk 

rtJid ifjafllr 


4l 1i7.i 


XIATEMfAU BiXTEJSU 1UCE0RQWP 


103 


for delettuirLing the cultural development* and relations of the incittt 
N«r Eflit Types ctc-j-tv t-cfc from (lie J [ill i tt*s ire caramon in ihi- iMr 
&fr(irr Age m Palestine. 

The type of seal eharae lerint * of Egypt is the scarab. cut in the form 
of the JraTOfoafu# af^yti^mru, the sacred beetle tif anewm Egypt It 



Ti t- ff. !kil CjrtiiMlfE InpfTMHrii. Ikb-tb^pber (BA30H ?io 47. | y *( 


Wli piefri^l lenjjthffiat and worn on a rortl or Hi A ring. The s^] wu 
cut on I he m undc.r»Li^ of the beetle (lift *$) . Scarab* were nude of 
various frcmi-prccjciu* stoibes and also of Common atones, faitm*^ or mere 
pastf, Those found itt Palestine mclndi- both imporlituiu from Egypt 
and cheaper natrae imitation*. The latter wmetimet hj^r error-. in 



fW * 3 . ScmrmL, Kiria Llk-tor|rfwx I fcWSGfl rii, Pip. #}. 

spying the Egyptian hieroglyphics, which were evidently nut under¬ 
stood by ||jc fknaaftile craftsmen. The uic of the rarab-foffl for scab 
iM-gnn in Egypt at abonl SWKJ It.c, and during the Middle- Utonae Age, 
ripeciahy during tin H yltsa? jieriod. scarabs begin lo appear in Patcstin?. 
They Here not ilwayi um^I for seals From th* fact that thr cartouche 








104 


wiiat soeaS tllisi: nuuiF 


(I 


of a famun» Pharaoh such as Thutbmc* til or Ramescs II continued 
to be used 00 scarabs for ccutitrirt at\r F hi* lifoUrne. u wd3 an- the fact 
that thr name* were often jmjoHj itopied vilheut understanding it ls 
evident tlmt the scarabs were often UHcd dther as mere ornaments or u 
magical amulet*. Mnny of them, indeed, i|o not have names on them 
nl all bul. ctiDvenliDiul design*. Tbbi i* parflcfrllljy true of scarabs of 
lhe Hyksos period. Some il» Iwrar h , |]iriyfttliltoa , s of dcUks. mm r and 
animals. 

Other forms of amtilrts bIwj ^efe • Small fiitsct iiiLrigej from 
Egypt were eommDn H especially m ihr Late Eionra Ape. Use Egyptian 
leehni<nJte of blue faknee was npplj«l 4 l»» to- small ronkal playing 
pieem. tasi-d with ivory dice. a* shown by thr specimen found in quo of 
Ihe Middle Brtmjie Strain of Tell Bdl Mmim- Simitar piece* have been 
found at B*ban ilso- 

Srfll* in scarab fom anil with Egyptian ornamental motives bul with 
personal names in (h* Hebrew wrript are not unknown. An example ii 
the arts] of ALimrlekh, found at tachUk Other Hebrew seals, ineh as 
the sfiii of Jaammah front Tell en-Sasbeh. are approx i mutely conk*] 
or bemisp'htrieaE in shape. except that they are slightly elongated so as 
to make the Hal jurfiO 1 an r-llipM?. They are usually made of semi¬ 
precious stones, e.g agate. The seals with Hebrew' names come chiefly 

frum the Middle Iron Age. Sometimes ih* de*jgnx aerampanymg the 
names include well mi figures of living things like the liuli on the mm I 
of Shi'm» servant of Jeroboam and the Ctjck an the Meal of iaataniah. 
or rnythiml hdngs of Egyptian and Syrian origin, in psmieuUr the 
winged sphinx or cherub, 

Scarabs, whether used as s*aIs nr as amulet*. continue cto«u into the 
Hellenist k period. IVrtian and Greek motive* appear along with I he 
Egyptian in the Ijl|£ Iron Age. In an interesting m^L from the Macai~ 
beau or Roman period occurs the distinctive Jr wish motive of lh= paint' 
branch and citron, with the Aramaic inscription. H Jmlnh, Ibe synagogue- 
oveneerf?). sou af Abba 11 (AASOR ij-iii. JtS? f) - 

Jewelry nlid personal ornaments of various kind? are CCDtUdSlv found 
m Ihe U>m,bj of all period'. Hi re again imported type* w rrf copied by 
the Canaan lie craftsmen or the Middle and Ute EfWtt Agei. Bracelet*, 
anklet^ van-rags, perhaps nose-rings were made of gold, tifoaj and bnnie, 
and in the Iron Age sometimes of iron. Beads for necklace* were made 
of pm 1 Jolla nnd Knu*prwiious stones. of f«irnrr p and of gloM- Thr 
amuLets previously mentioned also might be worn on bhUko. 


ciw 


MittRIAL AMD ilTUU! JIACCGBdt'N& 


1&5 


liS, Archeological evidence regnirdiflg nwk is hot plentiful in Fnles- 
No prehistoric playing pipes like those of Trpe Gav. re in northern 
Mesopotamia hive appeared. La say n-cithin 45 of the Babylonian h*rp 
found at Ur, The pictures scratched wfi the Chakohdsic pavement it 
Mcgiddo, however, include a sketch of * woman placing a harp, ih&w* 
ing that thll instrument was known in Palestine I wo thousand years 
before the lime of David. For later periods Mine of the Egyptian, 
Syrian, and Assyrian monuments show musician? with their instru¬ 
ment*, including Autre, Of ebo«, lute*, and tambourine*- In the tomb 
of Tutankhamen were found trumpets of the Late Erotile A(t r which 
were restored and have recently been heard over an mlefitalkuial radio 
■ hook-up.* Reporters noted that the lone «emed rather strident, as 
the ancients doubiEres preferred to have it, One of the Papyri Anas La si. 
the Late Bronze Age school-papyri cited above in connection with 
edui'ition. explains a polemic against a life of pleasure, including she 
statement. ” Thou art Laught to sing In the Flute and „., to the pipe 0 ). 
to apeak to the Hnnor in oUffl, and to sing lo the itftfiU (E.EL 181) ■ 
The word Jbhner is Lhe colflnion Hebrew term for a harp in the CHd 
Testament ($ 17$). 

From the Middle or Late Brenic Age ratin'* a carved bone handle 
found at Bethel; It is thought to have belonged to a aistrum, a popular 
instrument of Egypt consisting of trnill rods *K EmiSE-ty in a frame 
that they tiukled when shaken, Egyptian ialwatGe u evident in Lh« 
handle from Bethel, wbkh is carved iti the form nf a column with the 
head of the godded Hathar as its capital, The workmanship, however, 
is clearly Palestinian (BASOR No. 9«, pp- 8-10). Small bru* cymbals 
were found by HamiElcn at Tell Abu llawjm. near Haifa. The Megiddo 
lampstand an the Torm L>f a woman playing the double pipe Has been 
mentioned already i-jj- 114)- One of the Meg id do ivories (f I$tS) shows 
a minstrel playing a lyre (AJA l&Ji, p. S$5 and fig- ") ■ An idea of the 
instruments used many centuries lairf, in the Hellenistic period, may 
be gained from the freSCM* Jo one of tbe painted tombs of Mntiwi- 

Evidence of what the music of Bible times hounded like is meager 
enough, in the nature of the case. If architecture is rrozen music, music 
may be called fluid architecture, much too fluid to be preserved in the 
earth like bricks and atone- The Taelr #r have briefly reviewed help, 
however, lo identify and visualize the muskal instruments referred to 
in the Bible, Id some eajes T as wr shill ICC later f§17k), they may 
Correct erroneous Ideas which have hitherto been prevalent. 


OTTOaT MlLAflT Tim*iK F-TOVrri ? IH) 

1*1, Reference* in the Bibk to spilining and vfivin^, to articles of 
clothing, and to the lm &f toxtltra for other purposes, tueh u tic 
curium of the fabenwle [[Exodus Sfl and 3&} fir Uw hangingi for the 
Ashrfah t‘i Kings «;7). pn-M-tit another type of material on which 
ardttdofkn) evidence would be Welcome. Here again, of ™utw, We air 
dealing with perishable mutoriaK of which few if any rcnuiitti may be 
expected in Palestra urn nantkfiL Inference from whit k known of 
taler practiced in the Hear Eni-t must be relied upon (n moine ctlraL, 
though tt> ipiumCi r;> *miqe> madm artisti do, that the aileknl Israelites 
dressed jnal like the Arab peasant* of Fairs tine today i* tmw umnlJihly 
naive. Fortunately archeology ii not catirtly ulept &tt these subjects. 
Not iiidv do »e have |h* loom weights, spinning whndt, and dyeing 
rmki mentioned in another connection (| US); only a frw rirhonized 
fragments of actual texlih* are found in the anil of Palntisie. but other 
evidence of *. more indirect hind is available. Egypt met more cornea 
to our .Tid with its marvelously preserved remains, specially fruitful 
in bfomatbn are the reliefs and pfctOKI on the wall* of tombs, lempira, 
and palace*, the colon stelJ almost a* bright in umr eauca ti if thev 
had been pa bird a decade inslnid of several millennia ago. To thrac 
mny Im! iddtsd til* pftkrr reliefs of A«yria + and tht- *t*tura sU'Lne. met 
E-nirmRa. and re premia t bill on scab treio several eau^ tries of western 
Am». Only a few indkatbu of what k tu lie learned from Ihesc sounds 
m*y be given hew. 

The flnt woven maErrial known to the Hebrews, aside from reed mala 
.and peril* |H hank da. iu wool or go*t T » hair. The Israelites appear 
firat in the Ohl Testament n» shepherd* I Genesis 47:3), TcnLa must 
have Wi. made of fjoati hair at a very early lime. they are to thk 
day, and the wool of I he ihrrp wa- undoubtedly u*-d for clothing. A 
irferrner to Canaaoitr wool in a tablet from Nuii |i*» been rated above 
1 5 Hfit lAnrb also was kovw-n quite early in Egypt ami Assyria, Thai 
it wan pn>.hinr,i in hkitlnc before the ™d of the- Early Iron, A^ is 
ihuvi-n by the facl Ilia I lh< Grtct calendar of the tenth Century E{ 114) 
mrmions a - month of lulling Ha*. 1 " Colton, though import*! Tmin 
□dla. H’fim nut to have hreit grown in Egypt or we#terti Asia until the 
fiellrtii^ic period, though Sennacherib rlaimn to have introduced into 
Assyria 1 trees hc&rim *ool " Mk was unknown until mud* later Um«. 

EgyptUn rL-pn-btiH*tions of captives amt of preplr from the region 
uf Pa I nil in^ Who sought refuge in Egypt during times of famine indicate 
Iyp5* of onitume worn in the Lute Bmn.ee Age in western Asia. A shirt 


(1 m* 


IfATXDfllftX AKD ffiiTMB BACKCmoL^El 


l&T 

or abort lull ft* an appoa or kill, in over-gHXTrient constating apparently 
of * long. nano™ atrip wound about the body In spiral. fashion, and a 
U- ad-doih resembling tbe Arab fctfjjri art the principal garment- 
shown. A manlle characteristic of Mesopotamia was known shm 1 m Syria 
And Palestine. Thr Assyrian relief* uf Sennacherib's ronqtlrtl of ladiish 
*bow Israel [Iff men of the Middle Iron Ago wearing ■hort-aleeved 
dairlx and short ilcirlx and nomrn with long. straight garment* and 
bead-dolhs falling aver their bacl-j almost to the ground Women* 
jjrjirinenUi are not Kt fully represent*^! oJs th* towmomti ns tho*e of m^n. 
but on the whole they resembled thr« rather closely. In the folrf 
periods Palestinian roattiraes writ ffinfr *ud more in tin meed by those 
of the Fenians, GfOtki. -nd Romans respectively. though this was doubt' 
leu less true of the common people than of the rulers and aristocrats. 

It is not possible on the basis of this m*trrLa| to determine exactly 
what is meant by ill the terms used in the Bible fur articles of apparel. 
At the Same tlHir aorae inferences are possible, *nd the general picture 
is dearer than H would be without this eridenct 


CiiArrat V 


RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL BACKGROUND 

1^0, The Old TrtUmrht often refer* to pUcn of worship and to 
varinu* object* u*vd ilt frortliip, The Iinrlite tabernacle Hud the temple 
it JefiiaalfEH air d«fdbfll, with tllr Ark jliuJ the ciumblm,. iha JilUn 
and la van, ihe frtvcfl-bfucfant Cafidkatk'ks, e nd all the other objects 
associated with t he pcrviicc of the whe tU-arj-. There ore alio numerous 
references to the tcmplei, |JU% idols, weird pillars and oilier religious 
appurtenances of the CatUAftitci, Philistines, and other ima-Israelile 
peoples. For accurate of Mich omdtlf mean* of n-tigiaui rlpTt*- 

swn we may well look to archeology. 

Ruined temples constitute A familiar And imposioj; pert of the remains 
of Greek and Roman cmttntbfl. In Egypt may still be seen well 
preserved temples from much mote ancient times. In Palestine. unfer- 
lun ate ]y. Lhe remains of such buildings, ip of all building, are incomplete 
and meager. Their interpreUISon often depends upon more or less 
speculative reconstruct ions, making Use of whal h known in other lands. 
Sinrr nathing but (he founiialiun-* And lower walls of the bifihlingfl 
survives, with few distinctive object* and in most eases no inscriptions 
to establish Lhe purpose of the itrtidum, even the identification of a 
WSCtUary is frequently difficult add Uncertain. Several buflfinp 
regarded by their excavaton a* temples, especially iq the Erst ociTI 1 
twn» made in Palestine. have UUr proved to be private: houses or public 
buildings of one kind or Another. In several eases the character of a 
tiurldinpf has been debated at irngLh by -e ho Ears with no dccwvc fault- 
We ahall note a few of I htvt Oise* presently. 

The Old Testament indicate* that thr local shrinrs of the CaHaanill* 
wery ' high places. 1 apparently Open-air sanctuaries on the hill-top*. 
Remains of such shrines from the early periods art hardly likely to be 
discovered, or to be recognized Ef found. The Nabataean*, who occupied 
Transjordan in the Roman period, have left some remarkable examples 
of ' high places," with sacred enclosures and altars cut out of the solid 
rock. If the earlier Canaamtei had sUeh elaborate arrangement* for 
their worship “ on every high hill and under every green tree/' little 
or no trace of them remains to be seen today. 

One of the earliest excavations in Palestine, that of Gem, Uncovered 

m 


[JI 19031) AND ETHICAL BACB-OTOUJflJ W 

wlint Was brliEved to hr a *ery waiy " high with a mw of stand- 

ing stones tmtbd la be sac-rod pillars* but the chattellfl=T rd tli**c has 
bcrEL kHu oity called in quitikm t**-* Waw)- nnJ it mn*t lhen-fort be 
regarded ** doubtful that the plate wa* a sanctuary (it all, Sunitiif 
tfunr pillars luLVf !wm fauml at iw-vend plans in Transjordan, markmg 
what swin lu hli't Iwen snnctUarrrt id ibe Early llronzc Art. At Bub 
rd-f>ra K (Hr Tuflfit notable of these pUrci, I He pillars stood near n large 
fortified eEUrkwuro, Albright suggest* I Hat I Hit wa% it center for pilgrim- 



J'i[j li K**i^ru r'hniw, Trpc t-nu-rn \ltt I \\\&III S'lJ -Mfl. F'M t?. 


nj(^ from Lk ritifs lei the vicinity of Ibr Pend Sen, pM-'lliiinbly includ¬ 
ing Sodom nm\ GfinsOFfdi (AAP 134-7). 

131, In MticpoUEni« temple buddings Were known by the end of 
the Chulcotilhie Age, a-i the idaborsitt structure found in Sltmlupi XIII 
»r Tepc Giimi prove* (fig p 44 ). to say nothing of Ik Still earlier temples 
in Levels XVII and Will. tVbal may tie n temple from the end of 
the CHaleotilhic Ago or thr- bcgjbiflbiff oF the Early Broh*e Age has 
psppnUy been HJfcft^vtrcd wt Megidda in. Stratum XIX. Jli Otic room 
of a building with ma^ivi 1 walls was found a platform of table. yriglnally 
rectangular but Inter irregularly tEifcargMl, whreh mini In Imv* been 
in iltir. In a walled enclosure lei Stratum XV„ which belongs to the 
bitter half af the Early Bronze Aye. a circular ilmrHtrr cif Atone, with 








WHAT smx THt8f iTOKU? 


ill »i-aj 


HO 

steps leading to the h»|K atm* *u light. ftanr.i of animal.. fay at the foot 
of the itcpi, cohflrmmg imp^ion Hint (hit Hnetufe loo vu an 
alUi of iifriflcr, Whether the websuyif wu iwfd over tn this case 
II ikit rkw. 

At II there vu certainly a temple in the Early Bronicc Art, before 
Abraham pitched Ids teol between Bethel and Ai (Celirsb It:®). The 
discovrry of this temple in 11114 disproved (hr idm, Until then generally 
accepted. that the Canaanitre had no temple* before the Lale Bronze 
Aj^c. It bs not certain, lo he sure. that the rum-henry of Vi wag a temple 
m the ilricLcst sense. Vincent remarks that it may have been merely 
an unroofed ‘ high place 1 with a simple alrelSrr for the altar, at least 
during the firs! half of the third mitcilll him ;RB 1W7* p. A51). The 
complexity of the structure and |he ihkkhcis of the walls, however, 
•Ifungly surest that the whole structure was covered by a roof. There 
weft t*fl main rooms, the outer ope entered by a ramp. Along Ivn of 
(In vr|]h of this room were benches or ledges, intended perhaps to 
Iwld offering. A narrow door ltd into the inner room, and in the 
nearer left-hand comer of this room stood the altar, cut off from ihc 
nssl of the iwm by a |MrU[iom In the a*hcs which covered the ground 
were the bopfl of fowls, birds, and lamb*, 

BaljyIonia and Assyria by I his lime had krge, complei temples, with 
many buildings for various purposes associated with them. Charac¬ 
teristic northern and Southern type* of temple architecture have been 
dislinguished. There vu also a great temple of Ishtar at Man, the 
Amnrite capital, drtl fouHt before the begitmbig of the Eariy Umnac 
Age. Il was related lo the Contemporary temples of northern Mesopo- 
lands, rather than those of souther®, Babylonia, To jud^c from all Lbt 
ezeavatnni Lima far, there wm nothing in Pafeit be 10 elaborate as this 
tempfr h the Early Bronze Age. 

Aside from the temple of A(, and the uncertain examples at Megiddo, 
the oldest Cinaanile sanctuary known to ui it Ihc one found on llw 
ilope of Mount Grrimn P above Shechem. Thtt Middle Brontr Age 
shrine con listed of a small central court surrounded by chambers oa all 
four sides. Is the center uf the Court was a curious- little object, 
perhaps a s*ercd stone. A building juskte the city wall of ShffhfWl 
which may have been n temple, or may have seized as such during 
part of its history, ha* already bean described in tuaiiectinu with forth 
6 catkms (§ Afi), 

13S. Temples of the Lale Brooae Age have been excavated *t several 


(II imj> nu-mtura ilhjiujbvsd SOI 

jriacrs in Syria m.mi Falrstine. Al L-gant <EU* Shamnih j two temples 
L>f this pr-runj fcwrh uncovered. The al jjlifl bHic tlHUtfonn tv-xl* of 

Rj>h Shammli (J 1 II) were found in what tu evidently the library of 
one of tlrt* tfjnpWs. One of ihe texts deal* with (he hu Llding of a 
Lrmplr hit A Ihvail Haal. A mhlurt of Egyptian and CAWHliU! elements 
ii to be seen in the- irmptr- of Byblof, on the tfipenktu eoa.it. ^treng 
Egyptian Lnfluen.ee is manifest alio in Ihe four Cmianitc temple* of 
fhdb r *hean. but they wew dedicated al least in put, tn the worship of 
miire Cansanile deities. Al tcasl a&t feature of the architecture seems 
BWIt Canaanile than Egyptian, namely like double entrance of ofin 
temple, with the inner door at a right angle to the outer one. 

Al LarhLsh have been rata vnled the superimposed remains of three 
sncettsfiive Late Bronze Age temple*. dated roughly in the sLaterikih, 
fifteenth* and fourteenth CflUuriCf rwpeet tvety , L the Iasi one bring 
destroyed in the thirteenth rentury. Stnnply cnnugli, these were not 
built on a hill or on the i;i (y nnHodt hut in what hnd formerly been ihe 
dry moat, outside the city wait and below it. The first temple was small 
and simple, with a pint form for the altar against ihe wall at ihe end 
opposite ihe entrance. The second was twice as wide as Ihe first and 
had a row of four dnfflM to support the roof. Along the two *idt* and 
the end opposite the altar scir ledge* lo hold the vessels containing 
the offerings brought by the worshippers. The llurd temple followed 
the same plan, With ihe addition of another rpom at the rear. Crow¬ 
foot argue* Mnfirjaify 1941- 1S-&) that these wen- temples of TammAz 
and lihtar, or their Palestinian eonterpufts Hi 143, ISO). 

133. The first Israelite sahclliary of which *0 an: told in Ihe Bible 
was the tabernacle or tent of meeting, made at Sinai and carried through 
the desert and into the PmrHJMd Land, wh*:rt it was set up a I Shtliih. 
N either milrrin] remain* mt pietonai rtpre*tfttatkms of such a lent- 
^luctuary have eomc down from Old Testament times. Among (he 
Arabs, however, before Ihe lime of Mohammed, image* or symbol* of 
like tribal godi art known to have been kepi in a small lent made of 
leather, which was sometimes carried into battle on the hack oJ 
a camel, and guarded by women of high rank in the tribe. Something 
like ihll, indeed. In slitl known among (hr bedouin*. One of the Arabic 
names for Lhc portable sacred tent was and this Word has been 

1 DiKtUm hut* SUltay'ft dh£\ith hivt OKcmililfd ia carfier Jiiuif tkmn tui iRH 
1M0. ]. s . irs I: ILN Sl^i'K lB r lfr». pp. tlT IO. 5 h now Uchi*k tt. the f'DiH Trmjit 

M. 


WHAT UK** THKAK S1WJC8? 


il 1»> 


3Q« 

pointed out by Pnd IJ^mlcl lughnli mi an Arams k inscription of 
Fwlaiijm iRnytui lutfti, pp, bS -Mj, Palmyrene relief*. ttm cottas, and 
Iraialae. momi'VFr. Pcppr^nt *kal appear r.u be ^uch ucml Ltmls 
curried by camel*. It would swm, therefore. that thi" practice tiislfJ 
■i|Fr-jLtly iidP'iig llu- ^liiLynines in the early f’hriatiaa itiutum. The 
worJ rjuft fjsi.'j occurs oner in the JtcbMw Old TfstinufnL The pivilion 
into *hMl 3£imri look the 'Mktiunibe womin in Number* i£5:K Ls called 
u ijwblmh, ■ nil tftr act is -aid to have been dime " in the .night of ill Lhr 
Cun g regn t kin of the children id Israel, while they were weeping it the 
dour of ihi- Imt of meeting “ ( nw fl). From the Arabic and Palmy¬ 
rene usage log holt infers that Lhe quhbah hen- means the whole undei- 
ary. Deluding irnu for tin- attendants as well as the one in which the 
ark was kepi- The Uraelitc* Hem pat to have had camels in the 
wddemeu, ami ML any out the Palmyrene represent* Lion.-i are so tunny 
centuries later than the time of Mwt that they «nnot he regarded 
as showing what the I smrliir labemaete IcHikn^i tike. On the other 
hand. they attest and il hurt rate what was undoubtedly a cloudy related 
practice in another Semitic religion- Bather stHkin^ is (he fart thAl 
lhr Arab qubLuti was of ira(her dyed rearli-t. ftsr tlir I*rm-3itr tlberauk 
hail H i weeing of rams' skins dyed rnl ” (Exodtu itWiA}, Triffn of 
red paint air still visible an at kail ott* of the picture* of a •juhln\h 
from Palmyra- 

At Shiloh the Danish excavator* uncovered nothing directly con¬ 
nected with the taljemai'le ar the Ir-mplr mentioned in 1 Ssmud l;0 
and 3:3. The foundation* of a church of the Byzantine period Weir 
found to have the dimension* given for the tabernacle iu the Old 
Testament, indicating |lia| by this graphic means the Chmliin pilgrims 
were reminded of the- tabtnutck. Of course the builders of this church 
had ho means of knowing the exact location of the tabernacle or icmple 
■ t Shiloh, nor Is it likely that. further excavation would uncover more 
evidence on this point. 

Of the temple which Solomon built at Jerusalem nothing ii jefi 
lU pwitioa can be determined fairly accurately, pnd to stunt extent 
its arehiteotura] form can hr reconstructed (BA jv P Comperi- 

WB with the temples of neighboring land* in the Early Iron Age makes 
it possible to interpret and supplement the descriptions given in the 
Biblr more accurately Ihnn this could be done before archeology had 
provided the material for such comparative study. Archeological evi¬ 
dence, however, has nut answered all the quertbohs. The variety of 


■JK iii-i) 


HELEOraLift AKll ETHICAL 




form* found in Egypt, Phoenicia, Assyria, and flabylnnh corn plica lei 
lilt problem of drtcrmin mg whil werr t hi: ptitlfran folio well by Sukt- 
inuui builders Recent interpreter* differ in the extent 1 j.« which 1 Ju j 
Use prolotj’pcs from ih\* or that other country. p l‘tie eORcfuaien uf 
Wjil^ingiT |WDP L flo), I hat the temple was built in a farm defierd 
primarily from the north hut mixed with other influences in thv spirit 
of thu limits, mtiii v well #fuundcd, Tin- clureit ptnllrh m rcg.in1i 
Ihe general plan—ihr long budding with porch* holy place, and Indy of 
holies—are found in Assyria, but I here i» wdi u in Palestine thii form 
was probably borrowed from ■Wrthw'rUtttL Asia, Egypt Ll» te-mpte 
Architecture, as copied by Hie Phoenician*. limy explain some detail* 
of the architecture. The motives anil style of the caned deration 
may be illustrated, by the Phoenician art of the ivory’ carvings \§ f^), 
ParaLfrl* to the pillars on cither side of the entrance may be *trti in 
the temple* of Rhornbad, near Nineveh* and in a Cj'prkAc rlny 
model of a Ulilple* now in the Louvre. 1 The archaic type of capital 
variously burnt jus proto-ionic and pmtu> Aeolian, which ha? appeared 
at Mcpddct and iSxinaria and in Ttimjonlmli, was probably used in 
Solomon's tempt* 

A Middle I run Ag«‘ building nl U^Ud| which saute ‘wholnr* regard 
as a temple of Altirte has already b«a briefly diicuwu’d tinder the 
bpaij of domestic architecture (5 Of). The archaic capital* just 
liwsed belonged lo thb building. As previously not til. there is nothing 
distinctive in its plan eiShcr to establish or disprove the theory that 
it was a temple. The witue must be idirf or the other supposed temples 
of thr Middle Iron Age. 5 The hypothesis, of Thiersch that a chains 
teHatfc Mediterranean type of temple Appear* in a group of building* 
at Tell on Naibeh and else where ha* already been mentioned n\m 
Rut »c arc not entirely without infoniiatkin on the trtupJei 
of thin in rii.il An slIe-ei of what they were like may be derived with 
^ome probability from afl incense burner in the form of a mm>alure 
icmpic which was found at Mtgiddu if]g i 5 ). 

ISA The new temple built by the nr turning exiles in (k Frnaa 
tHTDod (Late Iron Age) lum left no more truces than its predecessor 


1 A food iMmtnWTj <rf Lfc* Amhtdagu-flJ mil™t brWg m them r.iUsn u li*™ W 
H- El ^ iJSL 1930, jtp. l+i&K wM #rpiFi Ibil Hu Jwfem* [iret la the (liilaji 

ifc* tint wondi al iavripllcviv cnuivnl ul |h*m. 

- The iUW^nC id BA \w. to b t«a PCmr,* uiu of the Irni Av Unldir,p rKm T n„| 

in PWeHm* m*y tare hrrrv teraplta, bqI iW h nmc of whkh t w br lw 


WHAT SIIIA.S TIEISE &TOSK? 


204 



Kjr U Imrn*r Bum*?. 









i» TKJ- 


IjCUlilOL'i AMP ETTHITAL 


F»fi « TVmfcJ" ut ArtfttOM, Jfi**b (Gnu, Ft SKV'II *; 


to have been MkrWtd. Liiin^EOttr ejtpkLftU and column-drums indierUe 
a rebuilding of the tcttlpic ill ihf Roman period. In Ihe Hellenistic 
city of .Maris* theft wts a ht#v enclosure *iLh a umpb threc-nxmicil 
bu ild i n.g in the Center. Th-nt tfaU wn a temple k uncertain, though 
probable; in any CH4e little of it wu left. 

New light ofl L'tlhitir trtnplrn may enmc fnun the recent exenvalkin 
of a temple in NMhram-ut, in louthwcaLem Arabia. As yet only partial, 
preliminary icwli of it have been published. Apparently this temple 
(ttfnn from the 1**t pie-Chrialian centuries, corrcspc riding icm&hly to 


The Ekphafitinr Papyri jdiow that there urns a Jevmh temple Lu I ‘pper 
B|[ypt during this period, A Lem pit: probably t ledktUed tu Ihe Persian 
buii-ftrirmhip and used by the Persian idmiuitii^rt hm lietn fNCAWtal 
at Lacbbk near the pnlaer i|D3). From the IMbuislk- period eotur* 
ihe tumh foundation of a temple at Reth-shean. whkh was known at 
thin time ^eytbnpdJi*. A typical Greek plan, of n dmpV kind, appear 





(04 MCAW THiSF STOSEft? (I 1») 

M-tuil was the ficUimUtk period in Palestine. Inscriplious showed that 
die building WAS dcdkaird to thr worship of the moon-god. It was a 
rectangular structure. with, several minor budding*, set on a platform 
til the top oi a hill and reached by two stairways. 

Temple* of 1 he Roman period find of Roman type at* found at 
icverol places in Palestine, as in other M*di|i=rranean cotmirb*- The 
best preserved eiUnpSes are in Transjordan- The remains of a Large 
temple pn the acropolis at Amman (known in that period as FhtU- 
dtlphuO have been cleared by I Laban afcbtttkffiits- The great temples 
of Zeus and Artemis at Jeraah are especially imposing (fig. 46). A small 



Fig -it. NYh*t«ui lahriof, Khiifat tf-Tfdumy '..CiLfciJ F\f- III) r 


*b lino of the Nabataeans, showing vividly the mixture of Graeco-Homan 
and Semitic dements in the religion and art of that people, has been 
excavated recently at Khirbet tl-Tannur, southeast of the Dead Sea 
(■fig. 47).. The foundations of the great temple of Augustus built by 
Herod at Samaria have been uncovered., as web o another temple on 
the street below the hill to the north. 

For the student of the New Testament, of Course, the mast interest¬ 
ing of all temples is the one built by Herod at Jerusalem,. I'rdortu[lately, 
at least from the archeological point of view, little more remains of 
th temple than of the earlier ones built on the same spot by Solomon 
a ad by the returning exiles from Babylon. The prcJidiofi of Jesus that 
not one stone should be left on another has been thoroughly fulfilled, 
so far as the main structure is concerned. Portion9 of the wall surround' 
trig the temple area, rccogni^ahli- by the characteristic HrTodian 





Ui |3*-3h wn T fjmi-fi *XD CTIIJCAL Ha( KUROl’?fP l£OT 

ntuo[ir>' r survive in the " Wailing Wall** to the *«l and a portion, of 
the L-ait wall of the city. Thr so-called " Stables of Solomon" art n 
part of the ma^iivc substructure supporting the rnomiuui platform 
Thick formed and ttill form.*’ thn sacred endiHiire. Parts of -julc of 
the old tribes,. now waded op nnd Incorporated m the city uni I on the 
south and east sldr- of the aren. may n;.- hack to the time of lferod, 
together with soinc column* in * passageway from oik* of lline gales, 
fioW under the mosque of Aq^n. Olhfprinr all that rrmarf* of the 
temple which «tood in the days or Jc*us nod his disciples is the in scrip- 
Ikm warning Gcflti1ef ofl twin of deft Eli to keep out of the temple (S la-S). 

Much better pfle^rved i* I he building which Herod creeled o vw th* 
cave of >Sachpebh. Tim is flow the great ffiOWjue of IH^nm. Ati 
attendant of the mosque onct miuuked naively to the author Shut he 
could dot jvrormW whether it w na built by Itcpjd or Solomon, but 
in any case it vu five thousand years old- Especially noteworthy in 
this budding is the use of pilantcr* U» break ihr tnHWlOHHli 13*1 *flrf«er 
of the outer walk at the same lime strengthening; Li. Thn rluirjiL-1 eristic 
Oriental feature seems to have been used also in the upper wall of 
the temple enclosure at Jerusalem and m the limdiar temple RuJofUTc 
of Pompey's time at Dumrcus OVD1' [[. fH). 

13$. After the destruction uf the temple in 7ft A- !>. it* plnn- wan 
taken by Ihe synagogue and the church. Within the tfrw Testament 
period it u unlikely that any special bulldingi wm constructed for 
Christian worships certainly none bmi been dbcovemi. Pctjmps the 
oldest plum of Christian worship which have been preserved art the 
catacombs it Rome, which were nol intended for llmt purpruw, A 
cave ahowti at Antioch as the church of the group to which the mmr 
H Christian " was first applied (Act* has llo Peal claim lo authen¬ 

ticity. The earliest church yet excavated if the on t found at Dim i*n 
the Euphrates* which comes from the third century, and this was 
merely a traMn in a private bouse, set apart and fumiihed as a chapel. 

ttcr bar any first century synagogue heap discovered, Tie very 
interesting synagogue excavated at Capernaum if not, as some hav** 
supposed, the one in which Jesus preached and braird, but at jgut two 
centuries later than his tame. Mips the only surviving relic of a 
synagogue from the earliest days of the Christian church ii an inscrip¬ 
tion found at Jerusalem (fig. 43) recording the building of what was 
probably the "synagogue or the freedmrn H fAeta ft:D). When jhe 
temple wm destroyed by Titus, and still more when Palmitic was 


Ill 1SMI 


what it eas Tuist rros^a- 

drvastatcd by Hadrian after the rebellion, of Bar Cochhtt in the second 
erntun, idJ si-qagOfUtt were ilouhtless completely destroyed, 

Jinny .vcm^Rur', E .r H* third to Ibr sink renluty *« kno*ti in 
Ptailntrnv nnd dsi-whvre. One Ml Delos e*CB t« the rand 

rrhlurv. and the ciriicr f-F the iwn tynafogur* of Dm* nwj' have been 
liudl before the fltd of that cnitury. This, curly Dura IF 3 U«Pgm w*i 
pitnilar in pirns to the hnUKrf of that city *M may haw been built 
Ot-igmally its a bon*-. The Inter one. built over it Jt»r the JfflWdlr of Hie 



R( is iflASGR No t, p- 1}. 


third century, had Mtill n very simple plan, conitalinfl of a rrctanpitor 
room, wish a niche for the TofilnilmK in one of ihr hinner and 

door* in thr t-ppHiilc *kh? opening on a court. The inter 
from third crRlmry oei, were built in the Form O# a baadka, Le* a 
hail divided In^wiie into three naves by two fffWl of pLLUrs„ Three 
(toot*, one for each nave, opened on a court. Such was the tynngopn.- 
mfflllv eJtcavated at Sheikh Ahnik i.Bcth ^hearim), 1-1 it ■ttriliuted 
|i> thf lir*t bEf of the third century. and three *re «Hnr indtcntkmR 
thnl it stood on the foundations of an earlier synagogue. There is no 
consistency m the orientation of these ancient t yuagogtLea. 

1-k*. Turning back again to earlier limes to cotiihler the saiftnd 
objects Found in temples or elsewhere, vr may mate that m ad I be 
irlipfli^ of the ancient Near East the primary net of worship was 




ii m) 


nsLWftiUft A»b rfiiirAx, n*cmr4tOTXQ 


m 

Picnic*, ipil itefffcfr I hr most es^nlu! object w** ah nltAr. Many 
altars have been esccavalrd, but here again the problem identlficalbn 
U flftfil difficult, Thf earlier tnzhnli^iib in Fakslitte wch uiElin^t 
to ser Aik a I Ear »b*pc^r they found m a reek the round depreriAkjni 
known m 1 cup-mark*.’ It W Eiow roroflutmi ihn| these may has 1 *- 
wrvtd various Kru tar purpose*. Nature I boulder* ami heaps of small 
stones or earth Joijbtjfia the nriirst iltin. Rather rarefully 

constructed altars if such *rn% m the Chrtlcotilhit nml EarEy 



fiff- **■ lli:-nt”d lornw AElir. MrfidiSu 
{OirtH? f> it* OtafcJ |^m «4 tfa# Uwiirwtj of Cb****]. 

Bronze A#c lewli at Megiddu Wpft noted above in utir lEnriiuiun of 
earl? temples. Roughly shaped rocks which were probably ntlans, of 
the Middle- nr Lair Bronze- Age have been discovered at Tiumafk 
Megiddo, and Jerusalem, A pktform of small stones and earth, about 
seven fwl long* Rvf fret wide, and one foot high, found at 
has been int^Md as aft aJlaf or the foundation for an altar. The 
Old Testament Jaw against making an altar with steps (Esodm 
i* recalled by n krge reck of TOUfhlj cubical fonn with steps cut in it 
which stands near the site of Ancient Zoreh. tbc- crly nl Snmwci + a father 
{Judgn 13: t). A similar roelc at Kufr Hwla in Tnmijnnhm has born 
ffpertd by Father dr Vails, who hesitates. however, to coll it an altar 

(KB im> P . -w&>. 










Wit AT MEM* Tltixc STDXE*? 


>11 m-T) 


From the 1 f on Age nm£ latrr pe™E« ivm^ immistakabk- L " 
with J Lomu ' At the comer* Thr^ Live Inren Jon 

place'. ifiGllldipjl Mesiddu Shrelioiti. nnd ICirifttll-wji'hrr Siilill fcitan 
■ I Lb i*- type *1 re ilcmhtlrc u««4 foe inrcan% they arc- the ham rad trim 
men tinned ill | 30. Il ha* bwn -.ijggsM.rtl I hut the bora of the «SUr 
BTir Mi-JicLiLn.il > 1 niiABrbut (»er bdoirh «?* up nit lbs i*lLar; nthrn huUl 


r« ** Nalnrv-.il 11 TM» Allif. Uifcbrt rt-T-iiHf iHA 50 H Nh. *T r i* HI, 


lliii .1 they were t£itended lu p’ppjrM’iit the ho-ma- of a bdlL j 4 Ci-^t £U it Reeled 
with the l-liLi of fertility. In ti'mpltf of the Homan period nJT fcnLn.Lt 
nuim’njiu altars like (hole of I hi 1 Roman temple? of other coU nines. 
They often War dcdkatMiy iiuedptioiu and reliefs representing the 
drilirt in wIidk Worship thry were iimiI Fine cuamplrs of rath Altar* 
*ftf rttlVikri in the NVfoatai-tm ihrint it Khirbet ebTihUljf (fig. JO) ^ 

197 An objerl rr-^uluriv n-id 1 ri 1 with Oanannitc Wonhip anil 
often referred Iei jjs the Old Testament the sacred: pillar or in awl hi St 
(tn-isjfr^id^, pluru] md»^Af a front Lhc root n^ib). Heine of stone. ihe** 



|i , 47 , HRt-TfiTOrn A^D ETHfrAL BACKtiROCNP HI 

may foiriy be expected to turn up in excavation*, *ud many supposed 
UlAisebat. have Wn found, but once more there *rb*s Lhe question of 
Identification. At T10 point, indeed, if the different* between fact and 
interpret a Lktfi more conspicuous. Tbe rough stone Odlumiu nt*w known 
Eo have been a chartetenslm feature of Israelite httUt*-»Dl traction in 
the Middle iron Age ({ H) wer* commonly culled ma^iebot whm found 
in the first Patcrtiiiiilft excavations. Along «:ilh lie masy dubious 
™mplei. hdnver. there are aorne dear instances of ificird pillared 
In one of the Late Store* temples of Brlh-ihean was found a 
standing stone, almrvd cylindrical in form but smaller at the top than 
at the hot I am. Sunk kit the pavement pear it was a basin, probably 
for the receipt of libation*. 

A remarkable collect ido of mavirbot came to lijjfht in a Canaanite 
sanctuary nf the Middle Age which was excavated at Byhloa 

in 1030. They ronsi*t*il of about twenty columns in the general form 
of obelisk* and of Jurying heights, the tallest being more than ten feet 
high. Mart of them wrre crowded together in on* part of a court, sad 
a few in another room or corridor They were ml in foundations with 
mortar: niort remarkable of all. a few of the top* which had been broken 
off were carefully i*t up m the lame way betide the columns to which 
they had belonged.. When the author with a parly of American arche* 
oJugisLt viiltetl the ute in the summer of HIM, Monsieur OuEutnd, the 
director of the excavation, remarked that he had «*n wayside cfo±Nc* 
in Kuimpe treated in the «me reverent fashion 

In the South Arabian temple mentioned above two uptight ifotirs, 
one of tapering form and the other rudely shaped La represent a ktBUD 
being or anthropomorphic deity* stood against th* front of eta* of the 
altars. Perhaps w* have here an example of tmukion from the pillar 
representing a god to a shaped idol. When the Uric of Mekal was farad 
at Ekth-shean (£ lit), it was suggested that such a stun* dab with a 
picture of th* deity and an inscription might b* a irtndlioiud form 
between the Onnanit* massebah anil the Egyptian image. Such a 
theory awunei. of Cou rse, that the masaehah a as intended to nprem t 
the deity. This is not certain. The references to rruisaebot in thr Old 
Testament frequently indicate that they were set up as memorials or 
monuments, and while this may be merely an Israelite reinterpretstinii 
of *ton*i which had a different significance for the Canunilea, it is not 

1 A -‘mr i 1 1 uf&r4bl pulJjrotbUi of Lbr Megvddo nprdjEini I DIP i3Li, |> 3 «ru| $£. flJ indU 
nlN llihl mi^i upciahL iLonn Fmnii il ninny pl*c*! in Level V. nquetally in. \twm C, 
■ rr? u«L ketbIj ilruclural uhI tMMj h*n Mi mumUH 


WBAT UEA]T TMRtOKElf 


< 1111 * 4 } 


tia 

impossible that the memorial aiguiflcanoe fra* primary. Memorial 
monuments for the god*. ic> K> speak, may have been ttl|gcltd by 
similar monuments for iht kings, 1 Standing stones m AMyrii cm? 
alinwn by inscription* lo in? Poyal monuments, and on the basis of Lhese 
parallels l>oth WaUingrr IWDP i. 03) and Galling (GBR 371) regard 
the famous stones of Otter as iHcmimnenU rather lhapi fm^Ixi>L. 
Perhaps they were both, especially if rite* for ihr W ten? performed 
in connection with them. Graham and May hold that the cull of I he 
dead i * 157; was Ihe oldest religion of Palestine, ptreeding the intro¬ 
duction of fertility worship in ibe time of the Hyksos (| 144), and that 
the missebot verr originally associated frith this cult iGMCC 44f). 
Thr later Phacnkum used words etymologically connected with the 
Hebrew mits&cbah to designate tomb-stones, which seem to hfivr been 
thought of a* objects in which the ipiriti of the departed might be 
present In receive libation.* and MfTrringa, In fact a Mat Ur of a god 
might be called a njb. ms m th* Hadjul Statue from Zeiidjirii (§ 14fl). 
These facts suggest a connection between the nm*seb*h and idol on one 
side and the massebah and (dur on ihr other. Other theories have 
been advanced, and the problem ii not wlued, but the foregoing remarks 
indicate how comparative archeology helps toward a solution. 

I3fi. Even nww problematic than the anmd ■tuhr pHtor *J the 
ashrrnh. which is often mentioned iWng will it. The King 

James Vernon tmndatts this word w grove," while the ftriiwd Venkttl 
simply tranditeralc* i! a* “ h Ashcraft" (plural 11 Athrrim"). Thr Israel¬ 
ites were commanded, when they entered the Promised land, to bftait 
down the altar*, d»*h in piece* thr massehol, and cut down the ashedm 
of the Caimnllr* I Exodus 34:13 etc.). They were also forbidden bn 
H plant h beside God's altar u an ashcrah of any kind of tree rh (DcuIctd- 
nomy Id: 41). The verb "cut down rt ii frequently applied to the 
asherim, and «je passage command* thfll they be burned (D^leronomy 
ia-3 r ep, 4 Kitigs 23:13), Fwm all Shis it is clear ihat the a*h*rah was 
an object of *™i, Scholar* have commonly assumed that it wu a 
wooden po*L representing the goddess of the shrine a* the maaachah 
represented the god. Some. fcowe¥cr a believe that the alheftih frit a 
living tree. 

Of course neither a tree not- n wooden post is likely to be found in 
a Palestinian excavation, since nothing of wood survives m thr toil of 
Pilr*|itic except uhrl and occasional charred fnpunta If it most 

1 Vm h the cmdiMioD Of iol ws|Hiytali«i djwrquttn Tk. R. J. G Hflrth. 


'll 13M1 


hxLioion? a r<P hthicjul uamtGJtoiJXD 


a is 

interesting, therefore, to not* that in the Eariy Bren re Ag* sanctuary 
of AS there win Actually unearthed a piece of carbonic wood about 
four f«t long. apparently part of the trunk or a tree, with protuberances 
where branches had been cut off. It lay beside two incense buriHl, 
hrlwoen which it may have stood before il felh Since it waa not long 
rtough to have sc rvedi as a column to support Lhe roof. and since there 
were m others to go with it nor bait* for Mich columns, the hypothesis 
that this was an asherah Is tempting, Ai such Father Vincent, with 
<fm* caution. is inclined to regard it, comparing it with similar finds at 
(JtUlA and Susa (RB 1957, pp. litSf) 1 Swketi containing remain! 
df decomposed wood in the u kraptc of the hons " at Mari are taken 
by Parrot as evidence of asherim (Syno xx. i ), 

For those who believe that the asherah was a living tree there is 
much miEf rid for study in the representations of trees on seals, pottery, 
and reliefs. A common theme is the tree with two gnats, one on either 
aide, Handing on their hind legs with their forelegs in the lower branches 
of the tree- Sometimes the goats appear to be eating the leaves, as the 
traveler may often ace goats doing in the Near East today; sometime 
their heads are turned backwards, away from the tree, Occasionally 
griffins or sphyiuu t alee the place of the goats. A great deal of study 
has been given in recent years to these pictures of trees, hut how far 
they realty represent the sacred tree " or the “ tiw of life 11 and how 
far they are merely variants of a natural if not inevitable decorative 
motive is by no means Certain, in spite of dogmatic pronouncements by 
some scholar* on the subject. A Cypriote clay model of three persons 
with joined hands, encircling a tree, may represent a ritual dance about 
an asherah. but there is nothing to confirm this interpretation. 

13fl r Prrhaps the moat distinctive sacftd object in Israelite worship 
was the ark, first housed in the tabernacle and later in the temple. 
What berime of it ultimately if not recorded, but the natural assump¬ 
tion it that it was destroyed in M* B.C, when Nelmebadrwar cap¬ 
tured Jerusalem, burped the temple, and carried of M booty the 
vessels of gold and of hrulttc, The gold covering of the trk W*,i probably 
■tripped off and broken up by the Babylonians, and the ark itself 
burned in the fire which consumed the temple. One Would hardly 

E Ail *mrb*T £»<l i-1 M^itks u cited Siy I'nmit d u Mrtui'd hEu (Tww A*thhd** 

jn^u IfcW, 1UL mha J-rmicLi hUa li*L ■ poiE lEocd betide Ifca *Jl*r ir. * IwtrpLe «4 Dm 
k the liuH calttiy A.lJ. ^ouitin fainudl, in™, cudwlH Ih4 utfpwl 
■ah* rim il Atrftddn wert nxrf-iujjpurlj CtnlesMU (ibid.. til-9) * m eoc.raeclioo 

the- ulicrvJi uid tbc Eerjrtun hJ. 



WIl^T \IJVlX TTCF-wF- 


ffiuMaj 


414 

txpecl archeology, therefore, to recover the ark* A* U matter of fact 
the effort ha* been mad*. but Jusl by ^k-nlifir .an’heologhl*. When the 
writer ffii living in Jerusalem the bear pajHT!i Sported the coming of an 
expedition to search fur |Jsi- ark. inspired by a Jewish legend to ltw> 
that when Nebiiehqdfrtfear look Jerusalem the prophet Jen- 
miab rescued the ark and hid il in a rave. ]f the legend were true, or 
course., the gnfefcl covering and decorations might lutve *urriv*d the 
woIuhm, hut if they Utre ever bund the di»nivi-ry w** not published.. 

On a quite different level is the effort to determine what the ark was 
like by comparative archrokigkal study. Thu* Ihr portable Egyptian 



F*| 01. SiratilE Iranm^ lb.nl, KmUh-WEiher (UASttH Sn T p S*J 


shrrnci in tic harm of small boat*, which were kept in the templet and 
brought out for publir festivals atid professions, would k known to 
Moses and might rtgpest I he idea of the ark. Another throry b 
advanced by Graham and Slay. Taking as their point of departure 
certain incense bvnwn 111 the form of miniature temples., r^jM-riaHy one 
from Megiddo (fif-4J) p these scholars maintain that the ark was prob¬ 
ably made in the form of such a miniature temple. and that similar arks 
were used in other Fairs tinian KUKttMffra fGMCC *4*f. «|-7; AJSL 
103d, pp. !1 J-S4) , While the present write? doe* not feel that the 
ihaa lias been established, it unquestionably deserves serious con¬ 
sideration. 

140. Minor objects used in Canaanlte or Israelite worship are fre¬ 
quently unearthed. Trout Kirialb-sephef comes a steatite uletidl in 
the form of a lion's head, the fewer jar being extended to form a bowl. 








4 1 |0| KELlGlOUn ASH rTJHll At DACTC.rjftlJl.1 SU t\5 

plausibly interpreted aj a l»i¥l nf inc-ehsc I fig. 51). At Hie* 3mfk of the 
5;ritd is a hole for a wcKrttr.iL ]l,i ci i.tli'_ Similar oljwls arc common ffl 
Middle Imn sLmtJL in Syria A curious bowl of the L_m ( >- Bronze Age 
found it the umf sitr probably ^rvitl some cullic iturpirt-. It is made 
of soft limestone ami a try erudely cstcuttiJ PrcijiTlinit from the rim 
is tb head of a I ian. whose foreleg* ore extended buck word around the 
sides of tie bowl. Opposite the bead is a dal spout. and at tie eornen 



Vit. M UtoPtlMcCyt V'orL kinitii wplm I tU^tUt Ko. 3a. p. T>. 


an either sick of this are lion eubs h Lhrir ctlmdrd hEnJL^i forming tie 
lidn of the spout | fig. 54). Bowk decorated with serpents in relief, 
as found at Bcth-dhcan for eiAmple, may have Wn u&d for lihutipRi. 

Bronze tripods like those referred lo previously may trnvr mved 
sometimes to hold bowls of this sort ns well as trnnp*. Another type 
of stood, perhaps used to hold motive offering* of flower* of fruit or 
howls for libation* or keen**, ronsinted of open cylinders of day with 
kindle*, window dike openings cun the side*, and plastic decoration in 
the form of birch, wfpplil^ or Ikms. These havr been found in the Late 
Brotute levels or Bcth-^hi'an And Megiddo, The closest pnrlMds are the 
ilnmta found in the temple of Mtsr at Aahur. 








WHAt MEAN tll£S£ 


ill i*ni) 


iio 

From tJlfic a nit other object* whirli (eihv have beni Uved in worJiip 
Wr get tittle h l- I p in attempting Id rmnitruri Mhtl wk h ■■ ify l hi 1 vp«fti 
r>f the labrrtiftffe and temple which are drwnbftl id the OM Tr^taenent. 1 
Miinv attempts h*v»- k^P m«3f lid ufen% the cph&d r die nature of 
which U hat made dear by the pontexU in which it is mentioned in the 
Ohi Testament. A tbrory recto tly advanced by Thiersch 
und tfphnd, WM). on life b*ri* of comparative archmbgirat tnv«tk 
gitkui, Is I hat the rpbod wn a light alecveleSS garment warn by god* 
*nd theif pfi«fiJ throughout the indent Near EtaL There ts much to 
be said for thu theory &JPQS 1937, pp. ZAW I9S7, pp. UNJ-*; 

AJ A l&Stt, p. 314- but cf. RB IW3H, pp. I0B-I1). Less probable is the 
view of May, who connect* the rphocl with the irk a* i miniature 
Irmplc i'AJSL IS3S, pp. 44-69). For the elaborately decorated wheeled 
"bases n of the temple* (I Kings T;4M7) parallels have been found in 
approximately contemporary objecll from Cyprus, eoaiitU| of usinifl- 
tyro wigoaa in the form of frameworks on wheels, witt ring* it the top 
lo h&ld basin* or keltic* (WDP L I&5I), Simitar objects hive brrft 
unearthed it Mtgiddo (DIP riii, PI, HO). The Hebrew word for the 
wheeled “ bue M is m the form eijbif th.ii word appear* in 

South Arabic imeriptBaa in connection with the ippuitin of the etrfl 
( MAR 130 fj< Sonic of the Old Testament niflin of cull object* occur 
in the Rag Shamh lecti. but not in such a way is to aid in describing 
them. For the ucred vtwdj of liter limes, in partleuiir those of 
Herod 1 * temple, we have the relief carved on the arch of Titus at Rom?, 
which celebrate! the eanqUcil of Jeniiikm md shows the seven- 
branched candlestick* from the temple being carried in triumph*! pro 
““■00- The Torah shrine of the synagogue is illustrated for Ihe third 
rtntury A.D. ind thereafter in ntPSftit* and carving* from the »yn*- 
goguei already mentioned* 

141. Among object* of nnn-hraditc worship often referred to in the 
Old Testament are the dumb and belpleU idoli of the Gentile*. In 
%- v pl< northern Syria, md Mesopotamia ire found many targe statues 
of the gods, but in Palestine such idols have not been found in any of 
Uw temples era rated. Probably the Cinuniles did no! use idol* Of 
Ihli sort but regarded their musebot and uherirn a* sufficient repre¬ 
sentations of the deities' presence in the temple*. Smaller Image* and 
relief!, however, have been found ID Palestine in 'Ccftriderablr abundance, 
though their use in worship U problematic. One of the moil striking 

IW-— &A -I*. K B be faflfuT m*i*ri*| on lb* iLkbjret of p*fa§i*pli. 


(MtlJ 


RK 1 -TGJD t*H ASft ETHICAL BACXdircH'tfll 


£17 


object-* of th ep sort, uisfurlimalrly very incomplete, it the lower portion 
□f what Mtmi clrtHy U? Ilivc been a relief ehT a serpen I-gaddw. It vra* 
found ip the a»hr* of ibe fire which brought to an end the oeeupation 
of Sltaitijni I> (Middle limnac* Age) at KiNath-scpher. The upper 



fh% *SL Stfpeui S4*lf, Ktrkiii tcjAisx (AASOR xvjp, FE *k|u 

Imrtuiti had been destroyed and the remaining part badly damaged by 
the lire, [nit the nu11itii-.s of u clothed figure with a serpent uiili'd xlImhj.1 
jta ]pgi *r* dUtrirmble (fiR-M)* A similar figure, of which ".gaEfl uel- 
farlCDlirfy only the lower part is preserved, appears Ota a sriwuil litfieilOhe 
plaque found a I Shfthfin, accompanied by an inscription in the" Slnaitfc ‘ 
alphabet. 






Qjg what Mu** Tttise iTOKia? (fitf) 

Fiipirrn of gods and godde*se* »n' sbcnm on u SDmW of votive slda*- 
IJhtic 1 li f ihi- most famous «U1 tines! uf these i* Ihr *l*le 3Itkafc found 
ju one of the Late Bmnstr .4j*r tcniplr* of Belhshean. Tht inscription 
qu this stele in Egyptian. and the figure of the god Tumbles Ihil of 
!ht Hyktw* god ftitckh. A stele of the godd»J Anat w** found il*J p! 
Betbshcan. The god* worshipped in ll» lemplcs at Hni Skamrah are 
represented on slelar discovered there, A ritual scene representing, in 
all probability, the Moabite god Chcfliodi and tk gpddcH Ash tart, 
Wh n I ford figure who » probably si king, appears with an. inscription 
iri in unidentified script ciii a. “-tonr found at Balu'ah in TkUQsnklli 
In the Greek and Human period a, of couree. ilont statues and reliefs 
Of ikilEM were Commonly used. Only a few ppecimenR have been pre- 
wrvrd in Palestine. The *yjw»retiaiic Nabataean deities of Kiirbfl d- 
Tannur are especially worthy of uirnlinn (fig. £4}. 

^ mail erld^'H in brutiKt' flTv not uncommon. Mml nf I hem represent 
gods rather than guddew*, though there are a few OUDpki of the 
latter. At Gezcr was found a 1 it tie bronze image of a naked goddess 
with boms. 1 A aiele found it Ifo th-*h**n has been regarded as repre¬ 
senting this goddess al». Among the brwnift imaflH of gpds loroe are 
sealed. oLhere itindini? or watting.. A common type is thil of the god 
Baal, standing with uplifted right arm. brandishing a thunderbolt Ot 
weapon of some kind. This posture appeal in conjunction with various 
types of garb and head-gear, which betray the influence of different 
peoples ansi cultures. Figures of deities in relief on gold plaque* are 
known also. not to mention represefitalions of god* and goddesses 0J1 
wals, some of which will be discussed toter. Whether any of there can 
in any senre be interpreted a* idols ja doubtful, 

By far the most cormnufi representation of a goddess is the clay 
plaque or figurine. During the Bronze Age the plaque showing the 
goddess in relief reent* to have been more common (fig. Si), while in 
the Iron Age figurine*, both hand-made and molded, prevailed. Various 
types may t« dillmguifhed according to the kind of garment *«4 head¬ 
dress, if any, am! by the posture, especially the position of the hands 
and arms, bunging- at the sides, outspread, or holding the breasts as if 
offering nourishment. A peculiar type of figurine charade riilic of the 

1 Tk* imJb V,* fj*i-r r,*hnsr AdilmtklHUk ECfiu 14- 1), i *, Ajktfcrt id ih* in** 
ham. Mlutuk and Kvruin, h«W#vtf, 1rt tH w ^l ww w hf lft l t9 Hpuvt^f: b*fl» 
mMrni *-■ bu-Unp frnnl ihtm in Lkii (*>±Mgi- ■!».■ at (dj-Tht til** HASQH, N'u 
!«. pp ti t Tlw Mr Idmtrficmljwi l. 



KEUGTQL'S AS& UTIIh Yl- 




"tv rv f“ 

mix’ll am|Jii|X , »|1* B 1V M *'A 



aso wut wxijt mm* mi xm ? 41 iau 

MktrfE- (niTti Afii- has only the upper pnH in hiiEcinn form, the tow*r 
port bring merely a round column with flaring haw. 

Siich figurines and especially I hose nf ihe naked are 

i^tu^nn i:nt only in Palatine but throughout wrstrrn Ma. No name 
is inscribed on any of them; it i* only by iwttinptbn or convention that 
the name of Ashlart is applied tn them Otic fan not be sure, indeed. 



Pi*. -M. Aitart* nsifUrt, 30Hitfe.*fplKr (AASOR- triL PI H7) . 


that they are idols at nil in the sense of cult images. They limy have 
been household deities, like the tmphjiu of Uic Old Testament, or they 
may ha*c been Used <11 some form of sympathetic ma|fir< perhaps In 
aid wrotncji in childbirth, Thii Lut possibility Is suggested particularly 
by n uroup of HguriDCf from KirbEh-sephcr which, in the judgment of 
phynieiahi who Iimvc seen them, dearly represent a woman about to 
pfive birth. 1 What was originally an idol, of course, may have tlegentr- 
■.Ifd into an amulet is some eases. On the whale it remains likely that 


1 W, F. Alhrifht la M4fm *pw &vn*** it If A. Ahiv 4. I IQT-tSKl 


(IIM14) mRLioiDtre awn ethical iucitGfcOLitfn i£l 

many if not all of the figurine* and plaque* were intended JU image* 
of the Mulhrr tindJn'J, Ihr pcrHjnifvc&tion of thr |»*eri of Ferlilitf an 
which man's life pfid lUibrIMlWt depend, The Imme of Ashlirt appears 
on a real impression found at Bethel (fin. M), but Ihf goddess is here 
doLhed and qilitr different from the 

Cky iniagr-n. of animal* and birds are wcunniiEly found Th«e an- 
jimlmldy Pol idob in any neltK. They may be votive offering* or perhaps 
merely pkyUdngf. 

1itf From some of Ihc ucrcd ohjeeb dheimed in Lhe foi^ping 
page* and from other evidence it is possible to learn much regarding 
lhe deities worshipped in Palestine and neighboring lands during Bible 
time*. Far the Stone Age and the Early Bronze Age there is practically 
no evidence of this sort in Foleatme, VV hat lhe drily worshipped in the 
tempile at Ai tu callrd Wc have no mcuu of knowing, though in M«nr 
polaftiin and Egypt lhe names of deities are known fmm tablets and 
inscription'i in lhe same period. Graham and May ■emphashe the fact 
I hi I while a frw figu rines of the Mother Goddess were found ll lhe 
Chaloolithic silc dF TeJrilat tl-Ghassul. there is elsewhere in Palr*linc 
no trace of the coil of fertility before the Middle Brener Age (GMCC 
M If.i Only the disposition of the dead and object* left with them in 
the tombs indicate in earlier period* the religious beliefs of the people. 
Graham and May conclude that lhe cull of lhe dead i| 1ST) wax lhe 
religion of Palestine Until Lhe second half rtf the Middle BrotSZe Age. 
The Early Bronze Age sanctuary of Ai however, was hardly bn ill for 
lhe wofihip of lhe dead. Something more like the cult* of lhe great gods 
of Egypt and Mesopotamia must have been pracUaed already in Ibis 
tcffipfe. 

Hr- that aa it may, the figurines associated with the fertility cults of 
western Asia begin lo appear in Palestine toward lhe end of the seven¬ 
teenth Century, not long before the expulsion of the ttykjos from Egypt. 
Since these figurines had been common tong brfbrr this time in Meso¬ 
potamia, Graham and May suggest that ihr HyklUl derived from that 
region thr cult of fertility and introduced it into Palestine (GMCC &4). 
Certainly a dose relationship between Canaaniir and Mesopotamian 
feliginn i* indicated by the similarity of the cult object* found at Beth- 
■ilimu and those of the temple of Ishlar at Asbur. 

While images and cult object* tmrely afford direct evidence of the 
names of lhe deilira with which they were associated, abiiruiant informa¬ 
tion on this pdnt ccmres from another source. In the undent world. 


(It 1«4) 


^ WHAt MXA7V THEAE iTOSES? 

partirtLlaHy imatil the Semitic people* PH»»1 ™ mmnwnly 

brined hv the nnnif of a deity with a verb or a tilb- The Hebrew 
names ^Khfh appear in the 014 Testament are largely of this type. From 
|he pcrwinal name* id inscriptions. clay tablets, oslmca. and papyri it is 
therefore possible ta Irani many of thr mm** of the driliei Wonhipped 
by Ihr peoples among whom IbfM name* appear. 

143. Tbr verba nttd epithets compounded with the divine names 
a how alw the prevailing ideas of the jcocl^, Stk'h ft name, for esampb. 
m Ab(j*h (Hebrew My Father is ¥ahu) shows that God 

was com rived as a divine Father, The words for father, brother and 
unde appear thus in Oftnnfclbn with many Srmitk RihJs and the word 
for mother id applied in the same Way to goddc**-*- Titles of authority 
also, especially king and lord, are Used with the of B^i in per’ 

jo rail njimr^. Serartimra men find woven arc unit’d a- *,** and 
daughters of deities* like the Syrian king Benharfad (Son of HadluJ) * or 
a* servant*, like Obndiah (Servant of Vuhu)- The nature of the gods 
U reflected a3» in name* ^upling with the deity s iiame a Vetb or an 
adjective slating that he judge*, blesses. helps. or saves, or that h* ia 
wise, good P merciful holy* glorious, or the likc- 

The attributes and function* ef the gods apd goddesses art suggested 
further by the objects aMOeb-ted with tWm in seals, reliefs, and irruigen. 
Among the most common things are l hi- inn and moon, lightning, 
mountain*. and various living crest □r ci lionE, bulb. doves,. fishes, Of 
serpents The Syrian drills arc often represented as Standing on the 
backs of animals Th>: gen 1 1 It 1 s-» Kiidi-vh, for instant r„ statid* un the back 
id * lion, Buis appear al*o with certain deltlM In such ca*e* thr gmi 
or goddess IR not tdenliflrd with the animat. though the met signb 
Beaticc of ibe association i* not dear. U my be that the " golden 
ash-jfi" at Bethel and Dali wvre not regarded as representing God him- 
sdf, hut ai the animaJ oil which God, himself invisible, rod* nr MwL 
The thunderbolt or lightning marks a storm-god. In the Rin Shajonh 
LcKU thunder p called I he voice of Baal, juit a* in thr Bible it U 
caEl^l the voice of God. The militant posture of many image*, with a 
weapon of some kind in Use uplifted hind. Suggests a war-god. 

14*. The special prominence of the serprPt in stela, figurines, iin ^ 
cull objects has been noted. For some ohse-ure reason the ift-rpraL reems 
lo have been nfioCtltnl with thr idra of fertility. since It b commonly 
remnected with ih v Mother Goddess. Graham and May have ittrmttrJ 
that ihi» assoeiafcion may have been suggested in the find ]d*ee by the 


kuqhju* a*p smitcwL ■acxuikjujiIi $3$ 

mmbkiue btlmi a oerpenl ami n winding river (GMCC SGf). 
The ilove aIm? ii wHh the fertility rctaHinif the fid 

thal hi Greece the dove hii s3*?m| to Aphrodite. Nothing is more 
forcibly brought owl by ill thu evidence I him the hade importance for 
Cnnnnnitc religion r>f the natural powers of reproduction and growth 
oh which depends the very existence of any Agricultond end stoek- 
mising people. 

Equally striking i* ihr Inch uf distinctive lucal nr national rbjmU 
in tilt religion of the CMMUUUtet, WJial has just Imwb said regarding 
I hr *-**rntiid chancier of the Camanitc religion applies equally to moat 
of thf ancimL cull* of wr*|em A»i*. The deklin uf the Cana* ft ilea were 
thu*e of Ihr Srhiilk propin lit grfirttl, with the addition of ^ and 
gwlslrwff borrowed from other nation*. Many initinm of iHth tdigkun 
importation* are attested by the Amnion and Ha* Shammh tablet*- 
SffltiliE, amulet's, ami seals found in Palestine picture Egypt inn. Syrian, 
and M r*opo turn inn deities. Migration* nnd cultural contact* of vari¬ 
ous kinds were evidently responsible, nnd in addition to these tlmre 
wa* the common practice of giving homage lo Ihe gods of a conquer 1 
mg nation. It was thru biles* ip this way, largely, that the Egyptian 
deities achieved lln-tr prurninmee in Syria and Palestine Such nccejjt- 
nnce of foreign goth did tint nrcessarily involve much alteration of 
religious idea.". What often happened was that the native god wassinipty 
identiiied with tin great god of the conqueror without any great 
change in the way he wm thought of and worshipped. At the limt. 
both uEitlpr Egyptian influence in early times and under the influence of 
the {IrtrM In later centuries, the very fid that the native gods and 
jpu|d«*r* were pictured in the Fortin and with lb*- attribute* of foreign 
drilitt must have affected the people’s idea* of them to Mfflt extent 

Bono wing from different quarters involved a mixture of ideas. wnich 
W conspicuously evident in the motives and type* of tire image* Md 
Other representations of gods and goddesses. A scarab oF the nixth or 
fifth century, for example, shows the Egyptian goddess Uii nursing 
the infant Kurus in front of a can de labrm of Phoenician type. The hlend■ 
ipq of Egyptian, Mesopotamian. Anatolian, and even Mycenaean tit- 
toenU in the art of the Lite Bronze and Early Iron Age* ha* been noted 
In connection with ivory carving l£0j and pottery (till). So too 
in religion one current of foreign influence after another flowed over 
the land of Israel, each leaving some deposit Id be added to the already 
complex culture, 


1 1 


214 WHAT Miuar TH1SK ffnoJTK? 

Hi Divine puna used in the Old TsSUme.il .[.pear ol» in the 
Wdtwbgicl Some Of the* ■« uppM to the G<*1 «4 M 

others err given U the oime* of Gefttih* deities, One of to* Hebrew 
word* for God b El (<f. plural Mm). Jt occurs »m*limes m the plural 
„ i eomnagn noun. EstepL where it nppctre u part of a name, our 
English versions simply tnsihU it " God or nods. In the as 
Shaiurah document* likewise thw word 11 u«d boUi as a R^ncnil term 
ind as I hr name of the prludptl ££>d of lb* pantheon a seine ilwy* 
The fcmfefot form of U» WOfll, Blit* ia &ol U«d in lie Old 

T»tamrn,l. U ihe oahir of a Rutlfe* at Rnx Sham rah. 

In the Old Testa merit the name El ocelli* in BiWVll wmbmattoB*, 
at Which the most important sre El Elynti Cfi vfirin. InwaUlH “ God 
Most High," Genesis 14: IS ele.J and El Shaddu {"« ioifday. translated 
‘ tied Almighty" Genesis 17:1 eU.>- Both Elyon and Shaddu appenr 
also without El. The name Sluifdoi lias been shown <>>' mgn.lt word* 
in Akkadian to design.lt a mountain deity (JHt. MBS. ISO If)* Elynti 
it not found in inscriptions, but it w.s nndrtAledly the second element 
m ihe PhcKtirfiiti name winch has ftimf tn ku through Grark 

KUtW in thr torm Pygmalion, and Philo of Byfek* quote* shunto- 
xbm. u> the effect that a god named Etimm* “ who is nailed HiglwaL." 
w worshipped by the Fhacfftmiu H* was killed by wild beast*, Philo 
tt y, F would aetm to connect him with Ta»fJHH and Adorn*- The 

principal character in the mythological poem> of Rns Sbuvmb is a 
dying and rising vegetation god of the Tunmua-Adooi* type HLi name 
is Alevan Ball, and it A hardly stitpri^ng that wh»U» have becti 
templed to identify him with Etioun and Elyon Unfortunately llic 
narneft begin with quite different TOnaunanlj, Elyon with an cry to ( 1 ) 
and Akymu with an 'vieph f), and while these cOMOWPta were 
weakened or toflL in some of the Semitie language* and fell together in 
lalrf Phoenician and Punie. they appear to have been kepi quite dhimti 
ih Ugiritk (|S7>, Theft is also a second 'aleph in the middle of the 
name Aleyan T^yn). which mtfnVtT U always followed by the name 
Baat (kc below). The Old Testament name FJyon and the name of I he 
Ntortli Caiuuniu god Air van Baal call therefore hardly be the annic.’ 
Since -ply^a is frequently used in Hebrew a* an adjective, meaning 
1 high ’ or 1 upper; it probably had Ibis meaning when kised as a divine 
epithet nr title. nml brncr it quite eotm-lly trnrolnte*l M Most High" 


AILrijlIkl slrtotP iW aminr AhryaH tium m *n*i3 nrnnii^ "prf vaa’ wrurw 4a 

tfmnlH: JA3AC »«) 


Ill IU4J 


MUEIDITH AHto ETMIC1L 3ACIOEflUVP 


It is then the njuiviErnt of tip Gtwk ti-tEc hyptutot. often i^ird to 
in [nvriptHfni. In fact thp Greek Uk dE the tills, «[ipcyiy in 
Syria and hilcsliue, may well Imve been influencrd by the i-nHie-r 
Semkk UHfic eirmplificd by I hr Old T^Umrnl 

l+G. The gods of the CftiuunJla are uitully designated in the Old 
Testament by the word Baal iha h n/. plural which becomes 

practically a proper noun when applied to JcirbrE's god* Iht Baal of 
Tyre ami Sidoli {1 Kings Ifl: 31 f: Vi: 3fl ete,). At Ras Shararah [EuL 
is Wund only to El r whose servant he II often called. We have noted 
the namr Aleyim Baal in the mythotogKlJ poems. One passage reads 

Al^yiifi non af Baal," hut thi* is, Imrdly Mcfficirnt to establish securely 
Lhe Ft-Ul ionship. From tb-u parts played by the two where they appear 
separately it Would seem more likely that they were really Identical, 
or pwlbJy two deities o-Jf the same type, Iil one passage Haa] b ijaaig- 
nated ti the »□ of Dagon; in another he is identified with. Kadad. Seme 
pasaagea refer lo Baal Sapen (pdptin) i meaning probably the god of the 
mountain later known as ifu Cunis, in which case Baal Snpun wp prob¬ 
ably the same deity later known to the Greeks as Zeus Kaiba*. A large 
ptde found at Rss Sh&mmh pictures him with uplifted right arm. holding 
a mace, while hu left hand grasps a spear whose abaft Is divided into 
what ippoar to be flumes, doubllcu representing kigJskaiing. The god 
stands n& a bon, under which are wavy line* to indkalr mountains. It 
jhouhj be added that in the Has Shamrah texts as in the Old Testament 
the noun buVd is used also as a common noun meaning ' lord 1 or 1 owner/ 
with special reference to the gods u owners of tht aofl of oF particular 
place* and shrines. 

Tile feminine form, ha'alat, appears frequently in Phoenician huerij^ 
tbpns a* the title of the goddess of a city* Most prominent of these 
local goddesses is the finalst Gehsl, “ Lady of Byhba/' There Were also 
culls of Baa La t at Efamath 1 and Apntne* t Syria XX, 1341). In the CMd 
Testaroeftt this feminine form MtMH only in place names (Joshua IS:fl¬ 
it; E£f:^ 44; I Kings fl:lh; I Chronicle* 1^6; i Chronicles and In 
its literal sense of * owner 1 Of 1 pomSOr/ e. g, ba'shaf Aoh-bayiE. M the 
mistress of the house N (1 King* 17; 17j, and baalat *Ab, “ a woman that 
hath a familiar spirit** (1 Samuel ®;7). The goddesses associated ^iLh 
the Canaatute boats are called in the Old Testament fj 150), 

It ia interesting to recall in this connection that in the Sinailic Lnserip- 

' pffiiHn w ttpi dw jflmffrj 4 Hmm± *m Sjnw (IW- 1 - 

/■»}. lt» F p ||7 


4i0 WHAT JlfEAtf THESE ffros&f (II l«-T) 

tion* (§119) tW on* word oh who« reading ittd nwwiD* practically 
all luthonlppi k fm'oJfrt. 

Involved with Akyan Ban! In th* fertility myth *nd ritual of Han 
SJ 3 iJnm.il ii * god named Mot. Only the consonant* erf the name, of 
coutst, hEt given m the teats, and scholars aw not UniTLimotH ref&rd- 
inj its pruttnadalian or meaning, H i» probably, however, tht same 
name which the Girth teal of Philo of Djllb spells ■ * though it were 
proELutjfrfrd Ml'liIi {proto-Semitic m&mt becoming mdt in U|ifili£ a* 
in Hehnew and mJi in later Phoenician)* i.e, 1 death/ Mot is therefor* 
thr god of death and Lhe underworld. corresp*ndin|f more or Iris to the 
Greek PEutO or Hades and the Babylonian N*rgal- The myth erf Akyan 
Baal and Mot will he discussed presently. 

1*7, Another divine title which like El and Baal bramn lo ail 
intents and purpose# a proper noun is the wonl 'dJAn . p Joed." In Phoeni¬ 
cian inscription* Ihk won,! (Wun often, with jvfrrenee to both human 
and divine lord*. The feminine, Vtdof. is uy*d also, though not so 
Frequently, In the Old Testament ‘dd&n h frequently used for the master 
of a stave (e>g. Cienesk *6:7: Exodus fll:4, && r St) and Fof political 
overinnh (r,g. Geneak 44:30. 33: Isaiah 48:13), C*o4 is called u Laid 
of lords " ( Deuteronomy 10:17: Psalm 136:3). 

In time a ipcciai form of the word. Adnnai. »mr to he used regularly 
io place of thr ancient divine name Even where the coiuonatils of thr 
divine name., yAwft, appeared in the Hebrew text. the word Adoou was 
pronounced instead of the ineffable name in reading the text, a* k done 
to thin day in the synagogue. To indicate that this Wal to be done the 
medieval editor# who added the vowel signs to the AHUOUntJl] text 
attached to the tamenicih of the divine name the vowels of the word 
Adonjii. 1-airr transit tors, mistakenly supposing that these vow eh 
and consonants were actually to be pronounced together, made of them 
the natti« Jehovah (j representing in Latin the sound of y and i 1 the 
sound of ci i. The Greek translators of the Sept ungin t correctly used 
the Greek word for * Lord/ fryrtw, in such places, and the makers of 
our Authorized Version used the English word Lord, spelled in capitals 
to indicate that it stood for the divine name. The unfortunate sub¬ 
stitution of the Latin form Jehovah in ihc American Standard Version 
Is to be rectified in the revision now being made. 

Tln s title Adon was applied m the ancient world to other gods as 
well m the God of IinirL Thr most famous of these was the Syrian 
god wham ibr Greeks knew as Adonis, taking over as his name the 


(If l+T-Sl WBimUW ANB KTH1CAL astKtmousp 2*7 

Semitic title and adding to it * Greek ending, The well known myth 
of Adonis and Aphrodite, lo whkh we shaft return in a moment, had 
iU Kent m the Lebanon Mountain*. A* we dull see. it in cloftrly 
rdutrti to the Babylonian myth of Tainmui and IlhUt; indeed Tammiu 
■ tvd Altunin were undoubtiiUy the nine god, 

]48r In view of the frequency with which the Bible speaks of God 
Al King. and the fact that the ascription of royal power and dignity to 
a deity ii so natural as to be practically Inevitable among any people 
having kings, it is not surprising to find that this was common among 
the people* of the indent Near East. The god of Tyre* who in later 
limes was idcut&fied with Hercules, is commonly catted Melqart h i.e. 

J king of the oily/ Semitic personal names found in ins-crip* 
tiemi, like tho*e of the BihJe, often use the title " king 1 with the name 
of rt god, The feminine, mal&df. w used alio U the title of a goddess, 
retaking the " Queen of Heaven' 1 of JcnemiaJi 1: IS- 44 17-10. 4fl, 
SnmettPftpi the tillr lakrs the- place of a god's name aa the subject to 
which a predicate cs attached to form a personal now; in fact it seems 
probable that Mctck (nr the same cwitsonanU with some other tdcjiU- 
ratbnl became practically a B13H in HOW (»», likr Et, Baal, and 
Adon, The name of the Ammonite national god, Miikom, i* simply this 
word wllll a special ending. 

The Old Testament refers occasionally to the Sacrifice of children 
to Molwh ■ “ Moloch * X^evElicLis 1 ^ i T '5i ^ 1 Cpi^\ 

fS: 10, Jf rrmtwh Si:A5) ft has kmg been tuppoMd by Old Testa meet 
scholars that tbfcs name wm merely the word mrkk with a change of 
s-owtli introduced by the Israelite? to suggest I he word bedef, * theme, 1 
just as Saul's mn Eshlwal was railed ishbosheth (man of shame) to 
avoid pronouncing the shameful name of i Canaanite god (1 Samuel 
etc^ ep- 1 ■Chronicles 8;SS; A different explanation dJ the 

FUJne has recently been proposed by Eissfeldl on the basis of arche¬ 
ological evidence. Finding in a series of Latin inscriptions from North 
Africa a type of sacrifice named rnofcAomor, he points out that this 
Cadnol be a Latin Word but must be Semitic, consisting of two Phoeni¬ 
cian words of which the first is doubtless moUc. From this hfl infer? that 
the Moleeh of the Old Testament was no god at all but a sacrifice. 
While the details of Eissfeldt's theory involve much that is quest hnable, 
he has definitely established the existence of a type of Semitic (Or at 
least Funic) wcrlfi<e called moik: on the other hand the divine name 
Muluk (MuUruu) ha? now turned up at Mari. In £ Kings 11:7 " the 


WHAT San** THESE UTOSBfi ? (It t+A-il 

ibominiLiDn of tic children of Ammon “ ii did Molcch in our 
(rtL but the Greek Iranslation indicated that thr Effect reeding here 

Mil kern* thr name given elsewhere for the gtfd of (he Ammpctltt- 

I*Eh In all llu* it s.t evident lltnt (he Semitic peoples of western 
Aib were inclined In hoc tit U*h and epiLhels rather than proper names 
ill ipnkin^ of their Jsilir*. Godi and pud desses with individual nanies, 
however, were by no mei-M lacking. One of the most prominent of 
them im the Aramaean tlonhgod Hadiid {called aim Adari and Addu), 
A since vLaliie of a bout Sffl P. C. from Zrndjirii in northern Syria heare 
an Aramaic inscription stating that King Pnnammu has dedicated it to 
Hadad. iwvrn] of thr king* of Damascus were named H Son of Ha dad n 
(Benltadad in the H threw CHd Testament, Darhadad m Aramaic 
imeripliona). Thr Bible refers to “ the mourning of Heded-rfanmun lit 
the valley of Meg id den w {ftedhariah ltf:ll); whether t_ti L.% means mourn¬ 
ing for the god Hadad-rimmoiii or mourning; at a place of that name is not 
certain, but lladad was certainly known il» ai Ripamon or ftamman, 
Kaaitiriti Ihe Syrian cad* the god of his master, the king of Damascus., 
Hi pillion {£ Kings 4:19). The A mam a tablets and the personal name's 
■ n the tablets found a| T*4Mieh show that lladad was already a pfOEci- 
neut figure in the religion of Palestine m the Bnrnre Age. He ii named 
also (in the form hd) at Km Shamrnh. 

Mentioned Logrther with Sfadad and other goda in Panammua 
mwiplion is ELrihcph (more correctly Rashaph. as in ihr Mari Letts), 
who appears at fta* Sham rah in a way (hat suggests a connection with 
fire Late Cypriote Inscription* and also a *r*\ of Ramesei II from 
Belhrihean identify bini with Mekil. the god named in a Late Bronte 
Age Alelr found at Bdh-ih»Ti {fillT). 1 A fmgmtfltavy Phoenician 
inscription from Cyprus recently published (FRQ 105^ p, l*fl) gives 
a peMonnl cm me apparently containing MJkal or Meka] ms the divine 
cJcment. The Bcth-shean slele represents Mekat m Ihe form of (he 
Egyptian god Sutekh- lit the Old Testament the name Resheph occurs 
only as (he name of a man (1 Chronicles 7:iSJ T 

The god Dagou La referred In in the Old T«Ufnciat as the god of 
thr F hO i rt i nr* (Judges IfciS; 1 Samuel ] Chronicles 10: IP). 

As Ilia name indicates, he ws* a god of grain. The Philistine may have 
adopted him from the Canganitn; at any rate he was worshipped also 
by the Amorite conquerej-i of Babylonia in the third millennium before 

, " T aJir » thia eamw h te be rr*J MiW- Cth- EaFpLkm, htv'uig w, mifn fw h ibtic 
lifB r<iF W (f> HJHUCUl L|j.I" I'-PPLJod LB famifB jlii^qn'l , 


U&miora ASD IrTHH Al. iiACJLCittOUXP 


ii v&m 




Christ, and a temple with two striae dedicated to him 1m tarn fltct- 
vjttenJ at Hi*-. rihnmreh. The Hoabrle nnlwal god Chemosh* frequently 
mfnimnrd in the Old TeaUrattl (Numbrai *■ *9; 4ud*« U-*4 etc), 
kl iwraed Pit the ninth century inseriptkm of M«hs (§ Wh both alono 
and in the compotmd form Cbrnwsh-Ajhlar. Ho b probably the gcnl 
pictured ofl the Bmlu'nh of Ihe twelfth nattily. where he appears 
m the likeness of the Egyptian Set. 

The names of deirin Appear often ih pineo-rmntrs. r^fedally when a 
city has n name trrgintiing with 11 Beth-"' (1-C- " HuUi-e of ) , followed 
1>.V the ruune of a god. Familiar esamples aw Btth“d H Beth-shean, and 
Brlh-ihemesh. The name Bethlehem. while LiHWiliy interpreted as 
M House of Bread*" may have meant originally '"Iloii** of LaWinm" 
(a god known in Babylonian documents), Two towns by the jaamo of 
Bcth-horapir an upper and a tower* appear in the 03d Te&loMcflt and 
exiAt to this day. Egyptologists hove recently pointed out that s status 
at Tania shows Ramies JI as a child protected by the god Hiurin, 
tvhont they identify the Canaanile gorl for whom the towns of Belli- 
horon were named f Rtl 1035. pp. 15^ ■ 105: A J£ L 111311, pp. 1 IIJ. This 
god is also named ih A religious leal from Ha a Shararah. (Syria £1. lift). 

Other deities named in archeological documents have connecUnM 
with the Old Testament, It is riot feasible to name all of them heir. 
Lot iwu or three may be mentioned. Ill view of the fact that Jerusalem 
'eetai to feavr been named after a god Sbatcm. whore name alio forms 
il part of the names nf two of Djtfvid's sons, Solomon and Absalom* 
it is iEitefeslmg to sec Shale In (jibn) appearing as one of the M gracious 
guds 1P ft bore birth is celebrated in one of the lias Shamrnh pfrttm 
1BGG), The same divine Dame occurs at» is an element in the 
Phoenician personal names B«-Lh-shaIem, Yekorushalem. and Shrlem-- 
bit), Associated with Shalem as the other one of the " giacious gods " 
U Skbt {jArj, whose namr is familiar in the Old Testament ns the 
common wool for ’ dawn." Even more interesting to the Bible student 
is the god or hero Danel, of whom we shall have occasion to speak 
Again f§ JT7), 

150. ClMuile goddesses a* well as gods are named in inscriptions 
and represented by stelae and images. The Syrian goddess Kadestl or 
Kodc-sh (*jiuUu), well known In Egypt, appears t& the form of a naked 
woman, standing oU a lion and bolding in her outstretched hands 
flowers or serpents. One of the most prominent of the godde^e* of 
Syria md Palatini 1 was Anat ( 4 isaf). Th the Baa Sshimrah poems (be 


230 Wit AT 3IEAH TIIEKE STOKES f (f \.M\ 

tppftn as (he abler of Alrytn BijiI and i* (fmn thr epithet bt$t* i.e 
virgin. A tbirt^slh rcnLury Egyptian iiucriplian found At KrEh-^m 
etlb her " Lady of heaven. miitrrii of all (he jrral*.“ k a Jute bilingual 
inscripthua frum Cypru* riit is tden tiled with Athene. Y¥h Lie belonging 
to the general type of fertility godd«s, and luring wur»h tpfhrd alto us 
a war-goddess, Amt appears to have stood OH a lomeifbat higher ethical 
plane than mmt of (he female dvitk* of western Asm. In the Qtd 
Testament hrr mmi* ia prr-served in the place name* Belli-Alla th, Beth- 
annth r and Amtblh. E^ipluit source* from (he H> kwis- period (o the 
fifth century mention her. In (he Elephantine papyri omit t*o personal 



names which arr surprising to the- student of (he Old Tc^tamriil the 
compound Fortn* AnsUFethel aEid Anfll-Yahu, Pftrai thc*e il won Id wim 
l ha I Anal must have been wai-shi ppc d alfmg with Ihr God of t-nn:l by 
n-nth pagan ired Jen s of Upper Egypt in (he Prntah period, 

ktiow'n or the Fertility foddi ^i k Aahtdrt {'oJEartl. Phoenician 
ilUCTfptUms name her tu the goddesi of Sidon, and she appears in the 
Gfii TraUmrnl as " Ashtorcth, (hr ibulhihslnn of (he Sitknwn*" fi 
Kieij;'* St3:|^i cj>. 1 Kings 11 rS, 33j, Areurdihg to I Sasilo^I ai:l(l h when 
Saul wa* kdled by (he Philistines (hey placed his amior m the temple 
of Ashlarolh [rp. 1 ttrefilcl« 10: 10), Philo of Byblu* gives her name 
in the Greek form Agaric. nnd says tJuit *hv was worshipped at ByhloS 
and Tyre. She is pictoml ill a seat impreirion found a( Bethel, and her 
name [i given in hieroglyphic characters (fig.M). Apparently she <*a* 
hoi io mueh an individual as h type: ih the plural form "aahtaroth 






til ]30->a> 


asrp mitt-At* BACHmmnm 


151 


her nunc is applied Id the local goddesses associated with 
lk hmmU it the CinAmilr high (Jud^ IS: 10:ti, 1 Sanml 

7:8, 4l !*£: 10). The Babylonian and Assyrian Fo rtri of the name la Ishtar, 
] el Assyria each city might have ils own 1 xhllr. 

There vu also a god named Ashlar 1,'^toF} - One ttf the fflcut pmmb 
nent gods in the Old South Arabian religion wm Athtar {"-nJJtfr} , He 
waj the un of the moon-god and the sun-goddess, and Wat identified 
with Lurefer, the morning of evening star (MAD 1M); his position thus 
corresponded to Lhat of the goddess Ishtar in the Babylonian triad of 
Sin, Shamash, and Ishtar. In one of the Ras Shamimh poems Alhtar 
rules in the place of Alcyan Baa] when the latter dies and goes to the 
underworld (AB I, i, 4lSf). In the inscription of the Moabite Slon-c 
tf 1ST) the national pod of Moah. white repeatedly enlM Ohemush 
11 in the Old Testament is once (tine IT) given the compound name 
Ashlar-CheEnosh, suggesting that ClwTO0*h *a-* Identified wish the god 
Ashtar. 

The personal names in (hr labials fi.unrl at Towfuuh add the Amama 
tablets show that Ishtar and aho a gfcjcjr** named Ash ini t, Adiirtu, or 
Aahratu Caiimt. luifft, Vtffgfw) wr|* popnljir ift northern Palestine. 
The Taanach tablets also use an rxpreasbn, w If the finger of Ashirat 
points," which mdkates that tirade* Wrn* given in the name of Ashirmt. 
At Ras Sham rah Adsihal appears U Alhirnt < '<a frt) and plays n very 
prominent part, being apparently identical with Elat, the w^ife of El. 
She u called " (hr mother of thr god*" and H Lady A thirs t of the sea." 1 
We have seen that in the Obi Testament the sacred tree or pole of the 
CarmanLEe high place was called an ashrrah (§ISh). which Lv the 
Hebrew equivalent of the name AshLrat. Several passages,, indeed, 
clearly refer to Asherah aa a goddess or her jmagE ratfcl^f Ilian the 
aaerrd trev 1 te pole (I Kings 13:13; 18:13, i KkEigi SI:'?; S3:4 P 7). 

The Authorised Vernon's translation ..rf Ashermh as ‘ gftjve ' in these 
passages produce* such curious expression as “a graven image of the 
gtoVc/ 1 and even H hr brought out the grove from thr ho use of thr 
Lord . . . and hurtled it , , . and stamped it snkall to powder/ 1 

13], Thus far thr results of archeological discovery as regards thr 
deitke* of ancient FaLretinr have been concerned with CarmanEt* rather 
than Israelite religion. In general it iis true that a** bav* learned much 
rnore from archeology regarditig the faith and worship of the Canaan itc* 

1 AEbna^k Mig|u4j (A3TA IT4J Hut Ehu I 

1 W 1 thufc na. H 


nnpiuJI| She wha Efi^k 


WIIaT WIcaS TMU£ DTOSBf (|m) 

th.in We bve rr|irdiii^ the xelL'ion A the Did TmUbicht iLsdf. Archc- 
ologjat] nuLeriiE ccncerniEiK the God of lsncl. however, it not wholly 
luklog, Images of YahwEh, qf course, would hardly be expected, 
though the Old Teshment gives abundant reason to believe that not all 
the Israelites faithfully kept the commandment against using image* 
and it u by no means \m possible that some of the images of the Baal- 
Kadad type referred to above (5 141) were intended to represent the 
Hebrew Gwi. 

The struggle between Yahwrh and Baal which bulks so large in the 
history of Israel find* a reflection In the personal names in the ninth 



Fii JT 44 Y**«.!“ Own IBASOB No. si, p, f|>, 

century OsEmca JoUtid at Samaria Names compounded; with Baal 
and names compounded with Yahireh tin the form ynu> or yd) occur 
together in these documents. The contemporary Moabite Stone (§ 187) 
avoids nur Earliest arehcoJoppcal at testa tins thus far for the ftatne of 
Timers God in its full form. FoUihrrdi of the late eighth century 

with the inscription " to Yah web w bve bmu found at Samaria il» r 
showing that the contents of the veueli to which they belonged were 
dedicated to the temple.', and therefore that the Worship of Yabweb 
was sLiU practised at Samaria after Ihe destruction of the northern 
kingdom. In the Laehish letter* of the sixth Century the divine name 
in the full form; m personal nuts it take* the ihorter 
form as in many biblical names. Fest-cxilfc seals anti stamped 

jar-handle* Use the forms yAh and pdhd. though many which have been 
read os ydAi* diotdd be read yeftud (£ e. Judah, see fig, 57}, ^ Sukejiik 
has shown 117). 


flliH.}) mJDiQUA rtanrAti Mi-KanutNti m 

1M. Bearding the uf the peoples western ,Vi,i a 

Hrat W has been Learned from ArrhwIy^V, S«di inj reliefs sornDtimu 
niuitruti! mythology, but I hr most iin[ujttAnl contribution ii that of the 
flay tibtdL The Bflbylntibin mylh^ of creation and Um flood have mi 
impoHint baring on the origin of the biblical wcrounl* and limit bp 
discussed in IhiL connection; myth* aIm Bfr important from 

this point of view i,| L[4). For Ciwanite religion the pay lbs wounlod 
m the Has Sham rah tablet * An? ftpedlfly ilium tailing. Allusion* to 
such myths in the Old TntuntenL are illmtralrd if nut eS plained by 
thru? documents* though recent *tt«nptj to flail tmte* uF the fertility 
myth anil cult ill the Old Testament have scDietlrm** tfeen numr than iy 
actually there 1§ 153, 10Q), 

153, Ti) ilrrive from nrehrologirAl Ittitefkb iiifonrnlinn regarding 
the forma of H'^nhip pntctiml in Aueirtit limn is much more difficult 
than to learn the name* of thr deities, The muni rift of lempira, aLIq^, 
and cull object j which *«■ h*Vf rnhniHrrd do not tanVpV clear idea* of 
I hr trays in which they were used Born-* of animals found braidi- 
undent altui J3tt) may Attra! the practice of verifier, hut even 
wheft we can be sure ihnt the obj'rft is nil altar and Ihe bo ora &n those 
of lacrifirial victims, the ritual Alld prayer* accompanying ihe udlct 
n-mahi UntMim, to say noth tag of the wonhippm' ideas eoucctiuttg 
the meaning and efficacy of sacrifice. Archeology his not soked ihe 
vexing problem of the origin ami primary rigniftenner of Israelite sacri- 
flee- There is evidence that the sacrificial tnrlE wan Commonly practised, 
and the view of Graham and May that it go*^ back to the cult uf the 
dead may be comet (GM CC Si f), though t he evidence is pol ton - 
d uiive. 

Human ^aerificc,, often men I wined lel the Old Testament, is relief ted 
by many arrheo login I discoveries, in Palestine m well jus in PbotmeLiL 
ami Punic territory. A jar containing the bone* of little children was 
found* for example. in the temple nf the Tan it til Ckrthnge. 

Jar-bu rials of tnfanU arc bol infrequently discovered in Pnlratinuin a ml 
Syrian excavations-, Most of them, especially when found under the 
floor* of houses, more probably indicate a high rat^ of infant mortality 
than the practice of child-sacrifice. Some, however, especially if found 
at sauctliarira. may be instance* uf I he horrible pmrticc which ri 
abundantly attested by the literary sources. Eisafeldt's theory of the 
mof£-sacrifice has been referred to already (| 148), 

The libation bowls, Incense altars, and other cult objects referred 


£S4 


liVHAT fcttA* TltCiK STOP»7 


Ill IA3-I i 


lo in llfl-41, if eflTTwtly interpreted, point to the praclirti fur which 
such objjwta werr mn.de and used. In I In? fact that a Palmyrene Loeeme 
altar it caljrd a Auatflifin (f and that thi* word ir used hy tie 
prophet* ^ thr name of an s^jirt the use cd which they andent. 
Albrifihl find* MjpporL for the view of WrllblUJai that ircfow *'** 
used in Uraelltr wnrehip until ik limr at thr exile. The incente altar* 
found ilk Palestinian eiravituni wrrr then tu>l Israelite but CiTHim te, 
and it phi l^uir of their pagan asaoclal kom tbt the inditb were 
forbidden to use them <AAP I OH D, The nnly qualification required 
Jiy thi' statrmenl of tbe cose is thal A good many Iiradild nuft 
arhitily havp Wn using thr kmHdrtini, *iner otherwise the prophet*’ 
attack oti them wqnld mat have been nm^surj. 

154, On actual procedure jn worship »mt light rs cost by the repre- 
Mnlatfon?. rm ^ah *fid relief*. ahowin# at least ^tnr nt the gestures 
and which were eyitomary. it it intermling to note, for 

rxsunpK that the pdCture in prayer, standing with Face uplifted ami 
hands extended pnlmx upward, still Irfqufntly seen in the Near East, 
ig common in ancient relief* and statuette*. More detailed information 
it provided by liturgical le*l* h of which many have been found in 
Babylonia and Assyria. Mythological narratives to be recited Of drama- 
lireii hymns and played lo accompany thr ptuoJ. and direction! for the 
priril* ahd wttfshipprfi are included among these document*- The 
cefrftioniea are often elaborate and complicated to an aaloiibhitlg degree. 
Rites of purification ffom varwtus typea of ceremonial defilement are 
Common, Ah intr ref ling lliltik rilnaL of this kind has itwftlly been 
puMilkd by Aihrc-ehl tkk-tJr (American Oriental 1 Scnc# h vol stiv) 

If the ritual and featival* of the Israditn Were in pari taken over 
from the Catuanties, ai Gid Testament scholar* have long believed, 
teiHiicatinna of thi* should appear in the archeological documents. The 
trail from HLai £hamr*h name many kinds of sacrificial animals, bictud- 
itlg some that wrre used also in the Hebir* religion and Wtflc which 
were cidudd by the laws of the Old TfttimrnL Sr^rnl of the term* 
employed in the Hebrew Old Testament for the various type* of offer¬ 
ing al™ hive appeared in the Bas Shamrah tablet*. fur rumple the 
burnt offering, the whole burnt offering, the guilt offering, and thr peace 
Offering iJKH ^ ff) ■ Other express ion*, while differtfit from 1 hose of 
the Old Tnrtamml. appear to refer to rimilar pndm. The difference 
in fiommelature appears to de Vbui h great that parallel* can hardly 
be drawn, though he admit* that essentially the same farm* of worship 


cf ]«1 


H£L»ilOL-h AND ETHICAL UAiXtMtoVSP 


23S 


may Kljl'v r been, practised by the Jsrarlilrs and ranaatiitr-P mikd the 
people of L r Rnrit without any direct inHu l‘ net- ■ RR 1037, p 54flfj. 
[hjuaud, fin the other hind, consider! the contacts so rlw u to prove 
the huir identity of Israelite And Cuumtls ucrifin, From the fact that 
the path dels with Ra* Shamrah Are even closer thin, those with 
Phoenician inscriptions, however, he infers that the [sraeliLet did POl 
borrow these practices from the Canaanites, but already had them 
before coining into Palestine (DDR 110 ff). This conclusion is sup¬ 
ported by the fact that South Arabic inscription^ 4inw i close corres¬ 
pondence with l h ■ Ol-J Testament in the terminology prriaimnj* to 
ritual fibsmanteff. The trillion might appear oven more dose if we had 
•Urh extensive tekts from South Arabia ip are Available for Babylonian 
and Assyrian religion (MAB IM-&). In cither words, the parallels 
blwctn Israelite and B^hylnnan ritual on the one hand, and between 
Israelite and ClMADite or Ugaritic ritual oh the other. Jo not indicate 
borrowing by Israel from these oiher peoples but ml her show that 
all the Semitic tseople* had similar practices and institutions. 

A systematic comparison. of the lle-brew Points and similar Assyria n 
hymns has nurdc by C. G Cuinnalfig (The Atfyrm nad Hrbrew 
Hymn* of 1KM), Cfoftc pafilM* with ttflr of the Psalms, 

especially Fnlm ». have been detected by H, L, Ginsberg in the Ras 
Sham rah poetfl*. These ate w important that *c shall have to consider 
them further i| IW). Language retailing expression* of praise in the 
Psalms has been pointed Ollt by Wbkltf, Jtrfcm and dthrr scholars in 
the A mama lett ers (JBL IMS. pp. LOfHttO, Whether these sbo^ as 
some suppose. tJiat the f'anaallite kby* used the language of hymns 
and prayers in addressing their Egyptian muten, or whether such 
expressions in the Psalms wept derived Imm the euitotnary mode of 
iddrenng monarch* in the ancient Near East, ran hardly be determined 
at present. 

As was observed in connection with the use of meense, rites con¬ 
demned in the Old Testament would not have been mentioned if they 
had not been practised, yet sometimes there is no peree-|i|ihlc reason 
for condemning them except their connection with pagan Ceteraotitea. 
A r#ae in point ii the strange prohibition of boiling a kid in ih mother's 
milk (Exodus tW ID; 54:?0; Deuteronomy l4:ft). That this was a 
Cinunite rite has long been suspected; it is now made practically cer¬ 
tain by « reference in one of the Has ^himrah poems to cooking A kid 
in milk £BGG g line ttj. 


WHAT MIAS TEEIKE SftJKES? 


t M 1AH) 


155 The poems of Has ShuaJlh are especially important for the 
Old Tfstjimcnl iludcnL bcejutsc of their reliEfon Lo the cult of fertility, 
which, as tlmidj noted if lilt, vts basic Tor Cktuunile religion. 
Several observances connected with the turning points of the farmers 
year were the ous Landing feature* nf this cult, Mourning far the death 
of the vegetation-god. rites to overcome his enemy, the god nf death 
and the underworld, and to ensure the life-giving rains and the growth 
of tbe new year's crop, and rejoicing at the lamented god's restoration 
to life played a prominent part in these observances. Many details nf the 
mythology lying back nf these riles, involving acts which were doubl- 
U repeated os parts of the ritual, appear in the tests of Ras Shamrah. 

From a study nf the rituals of various peoples in the ancient Near 
East. especially the Egyptians and Babylonians, a group nf English 
scholars has derived the theory that there was a fundamental 1 ritual 
pattern k which dominated the culls of all these peoples., including to 
mime extent even the Israelites.. In addition ta the features just men¬ 
tioned this pattern involved recitations or re pre^enta Liens of the creation 
myth and dramatizations of the death and resurrection of the god, his 
combat with his enemies and victory over them, hts marriage with the 
goddess, and a triumphal procession. In some of these ceremonies the 
king played the part of the god, being thought of more or leu realbtkaJJy 
as a representative or even an incarnation of lk deity. 

In this connection some mention must be made of the far reaching 
theory of Bfowinckd and others regarding the H cnthroni-ment Psalms/ 
On the basis of ceremonies connected with the Babylonian New Year 
it is believed that some nf the P*aJim (in particular Ptalnii 47 and 
513-160.1, as well as other poftkai of the Old TeaUmeOt, wr« lu^3 
in on annual ceremony of enthroning Yahwch as King in the New Year* 
festival at Lhe lemple. A brief dueuujun of this theory will be found in 
g [7J. In general we may say that the great weakftr*4 of all such 
theories is their tendency to combine elements from different religions 
into a composite picture which is irtuilly true to no one religion. Ii can 
hardly be denifd, however, that them w** a Certain family likeUes* 
among the ancient cults of Egypt and western Asia, especially where 
the motive of promoting fertility wa* prominent. 

15*1. Ferhapl the chief value of all the new light on Lhe cult nf 
fertility is that it makes dear why the prophets ao violently condemned 
throe rites. It ii dear that they did not exaggerate the basic opposition 
between CafuwtiiEc religion and the religion of Israeli The God of Mosd 


(I mu^ioL s A no fctlllcAL AarKGROUSD 437 

aftd the prophets ri-quirfd first of all from hi* fKQfdt a high standard 
of induct line! social relationship*. At the heart of the cult of fertility 
was ao institution diametrically opposed to thin nmr*l ideal. The pif' 
dominant ink rival in the eontiniJAtkm ntid retw*al of lifer combined with 
the type of mimetic magic which IindctficS the r'tU- of the sacred mar¬ 
riage, produced a iLmng emphasis on the kHuiI iUpeet of life* which 
found expression in ihe practice of sacred prostitution- At bottom 
naive add innocent, n» doubt, and not to be judged by Cfiri^tan stand¬ 
ard* of morality and decency, this inslit ut km if it misted in I he Bronte 
Age and Iron Age MKdUlhH of western Asia whs nc^trtkltfl a Mri&us 
obstacle to moral And social progress. Allusions to it in the Old Testa¬ 
ment MeTVt mote than adequate documenta liota in Hrrheologkij *vp- 
drtvCc from aII parts of western Asia. The Hebrew terms used for the 
temple atlfuhala devoted to this practice, mate And femak. are 
diitifiCt from I he rrg-Lilar w ord for a common prostitute* though the 
distinction is not apparent in our English translatkins. These very terms 
Appeal* aJ.vn in the Has Shamrmh tablet* and kter Phoenician micriplkjnh 
and have their equivalents in Bnbybnkh and JlitLite document*. 

That Israel itself was infected with thu plague nf ancient society k* 
ihown not only by Lhr law against It {Deuteronomy 17 f) hot also 
by the explicit statements of the prophets (c. g. Hose* 4:14) and the 
historians [i Kings 14: fcSf; ISr H, tiz 40: * Kings 43; 7), It £fi equally 
plain, however, that this was only rUU? |»Hom of that fatal fascination 
which the whole Canunite cult had for the people nf Israel. The 
explanation lbs in the fact that in malting the transition from nomadic 
to agricultural life the Israelites had Ut Wm farming from the Canaan■ 
he*, who taught them along with sowing and reaping the religious idea* 
and practices which to them mffld equally essential for securing good 
crop*. Not mere moral perversity or stupidity hut economic need caused 
that constant L backsliding' whkfe puttlci many readers or the Old 
Testament. Israel forsook her trtir Husband and said. L1 1 will go after 
my loven* that give me my broad and water, my wool and my flax, 
mine oil and tny drink." because 1,1 *hc did not know it was I who gave 
her the gram and the willc and the oil " i Uuoea 4 :5. 6). 

Thus, by illuminating Cnnnaliitc rcEigiop, archeology makes clear what 
the religion of Moses had to wntend with in the land of Canaan. The 
conquest of the Promised Land was not merely the subjugation of it* 
inhabitants; it was the AMimilirliun «jf a culture and the overcoming of 
ekitienU m it which threatened lo destroy the distinctive heritage of 




Wil.lT MXAK TIlEPti 


(IN ljfl-Ti 


1-Mrftfl, In the light of lJirMi facts on* dm almost mcusc Ibetfe Israelite 
writers who fell I ha I the failure to wipe out tit Ganaanitrx utterly had 
Wn a fatal mistake- Thr religion of lump! struggled against (hr degrad¬ 
ing factors in CilUUmifa religion, not *ilb*ut bring caDfaTninatnJ by 
them. DuubUt^ it also ippraprialid much from the nliuioli *lw« 
shrines it took over. The influence of Ciimsliilr religion as of Cflnuflhilf 
eivi Illation in general vu nol wholly evil, The present lemirrity of 
writer* rvn Hebrew religion to cmphaiiie fa™l fc s deht to Canaan, and 
In minimi**? the differences brtwrch the t*n peoples. i* justified a^ a 
tra^lbn fwm thr opposite extreme* At tb HfiW time, it has Hot itself 
h^n frw from rxnggeEation. To lead into I He religion of the Old T«ti- 
ment, even in |Ls earliest rtnges. nil the ideas ami practices characteristic 
of I he Canaanite frrtitily cult is fiol only to Ignore or diilorl the testi¬ 
mony of the Bible itself but she lo fiiisknt^Fliret the evidence of 
urtiKiloj{y t 

15-7, The- difficulty of drduri ag from malrrul object* the religions 
Meas cntcrfainnl by thuse who ms dr and used them it particularly felt 
tti dealing with beliefs regarding the future lift What w*i done with 
the dead wr can dUBCover; why it was done and how the people felt and 
I hough I about it cannot so easily be determined. The distinction between 
fact* nnd inle-rpretn Ibta must be ccnulnnlly kept in mind; with this 
eautkift* however, we tnay attempt to interpret the evidence, for it 
certainly signiEr* something. 

Whether or to what valent thr dead were worshipped in ancient 
J'iik.-i:mi ij a question on which unanimity |&s nol yet been reached, 
Graham and May. as *rhave seen ({|§ 137, US), lay stress on the thesis 
that before the inlrudutlkfh of the fertility cult in the time of the Hyksop 
the pnr veiling edition rd Palest me vu ihe cult of the dead {GMCC 
I4-5H). Others doubt even the riiiimw of such a eulL The question ii 
in part pQr of definition Thai the departed went behoved to be alive 
and that something was doDr for them we know. More than one 
riplBmtiiiii of meh practices, hnwrvrr, is ijossiblr. Methods of treating 
the dead which appear as far hark aa the Slone Age In various Boon tries, 
Mich as the mutilation of the corpse or piling stones on it, may be 
explained by thr fear that thr rfr*d will return to harm the living, 
l^rpoMling gif La with the body nL«i may be mcitivmled by fear of what 
the departriL wflj do if his nerdri are hot supplied- -On the other hand* 
at may rspress a very different lEljtudr. if the departed must remain 
in the tomb and still require* sustenance. or if he must lake a long journey 


(I HELICiin l"N ANI* FTIITL' Al. gACgCTOt™ 

to tie abode of the dead, thore who have mintitered In him in life are 
natumtEy concerned to prutvhic for him after death- ThL* 5® a mat ter 
of family affection ami loyally rather than vomhip- The CWncM tfida^' 
drew a distinction between worship and such vrfirfflt«iB aa ts paid their 
mmlnn, which to miny (lirbitlin converts ihPU cempaLiblr 

with strict monotheism. 

for tic purpose of a working definition il U HmTBtfcnl to regard afl 
act ms religious if it La intended to secure the favor of the being to whom 
it u directed, and ibufl implies a belief that he can help ta injure the 
person who performs It, The highest and IfuesL worship, of course, 
il that, which adore* and glorifies God without any thought of favors to 
be gained flnm Slim, but a gift to the dead would hardly be worship 
in that sense- Wr may uy that there Wa» a cult of the dead in Palestine 
if we have good rea^n to believe that rite* were performed to secure 
the gi K»t w ill of the dead as powers who coiiM promote or hander the 
welfare rjf the living. The afirrlionatc desire to pres vide for the needs of 
the dead and the hope of gaining benefit* from them are not. of course, 
mutually exclusive. 

Graham and May maintain that even in the Slone Age there was 
such a cull of the dead, M motivated by a drdre to benefit the living H 
(GM.CC SI). This i* thoroughly possible and fveft probable, but the 
archeological evidence ti not conclusive, ALL it prove* is that the dead 
were believed to be still aiive in some sehKe ami to have needs like those 
of the living. The wmn practice of Untying the dead in a contracted 
position probably has no religious tignifiv n nee, That this * ejubryunk- 4 
position w symbolizes the idea of the rebirth of the Jtti!, 14 as Graham 
and May consider J ‘ at least possible |J (GMCC 33) P a+jni to the present 
writer wholly improbable. An interesting explanation of the custom is 
given by Watxinger. following Reulber vfr, that the contracted position 
i* simply that in which a oonud deep* oh (he ground. while tfat 
atrelehed-out position is that of (hr dly-dwrUeT who deep* ift a bed 
(WDP i. 7i). Even this may be more than the evidence requires. 
Guy has recently pointed out (OIP cxxiii. 185-8) that at MegUda burial 
in (be contracted position gave May gradually to full Length burial 
during the Late Brume Age. 

Ear more significant is the practice of Leaving gifti in the grew. 
Pottery Vftfth, weapons, lamps, and jewelry’ are found to some degree 
in grave* of all periods from the Middle Stone Age on, AmuleU t« 
avert hostile powm were apparently regarded as equally nwasary for 


WHAT OTAS THESE STOWES? 


(11 llT-ft) 


MO 

th* quick Had tb= dead, In tombs of the Late Bidden nikJ Early Iron 
Ag*a the v«s*p|j are aometiffiv* found broken and bronze weapons bent 
in inch A wav put to indicate that it WA* done icLLrulionaLEy. This sug- 
gcal* some such Idea an that thh vcA-wl Of imptenienL bad to be ‘ killed h 
to he xfuiitr Available for I hr dc(vd H aa though there were in it a soul which 
had to be libetiilrd 

)W. In Kymt way the flic of the dead seems to have depended «! 
whii happened to the body- Cremation was apparently dfc^tioHd, 
though evidence of its practice m early times baa been fDtLtid H eipwiHy 
at CJeaer- On the other hand, exwpt it! special am, such u the Fhoeni- 
fiip kings, and under direct Egyptian influence, embalming WA* iwt 
customary in Syria and Palestine, The pathetic tragedy at tie pyramid*, 
which were built at prodigious tgpemt to ensure the preaervation of the 
pharaohs' mummies and the performance of the rites on which their 
welfare in the other world depended, but which were already neglected 
■nd crumbling by the time oE Abraham, wu doubtless repeated often 
□n a smaller scale in the laud of Canaan. No Palestinian ruler* however, 
was sufficiently powerful lo go lo lUth rdirEfiM W provide for biltwlf 
in the hereafter- 

Thu day otmariei of the Chaloolithic Age found by Sukenik at 
Htderah (§87) indicate that the dead were bdiflVed to live on H add the 
form of these (usuarid. represent inn a house* suggests that the grave 
vii the dead man's home. The u*c of such chest) points further to the 
practice, even at that early time, of gathering the bone* together some 
lime after death and selling them aside in i special receptacle. Whether, 
as in the Roman period, the bodle* were first deposited in tombs. which 
were later Urn! for new burials, neretsita ling the removal of the skeleton** 
or whether some different practice accounted for the U« of the ossuaries 
in this ca*r, vt cannot Latl. At ■ uy tale lh* pmeticr must have been 
rather exceplkidal, perhaps reserved for great kings or heroei, the preser- 
vatkin of whosr bones was thought to ha*r some Apedal virtue. 

The use of sureuphagi or coffins h an Indication of the desire to 
preserve the body. At Bybbs, under Egyptian influence, heavy slune 
ureophagi appear in the Middle Hrenxc Age. but they ate dot found Id 
Palestine, The great carved uTeophsgu* uf Ahimm or Byhlo*, frem the 
Early Iren Age, show* the funeral proce^dim. with wailing women and 
servant? bearing fift*, illustrating such mourning custom* AS rending 
the garments. From the Late Brcmie and Early Imn Age* come clay 
sarcophagi, foughly shaped to Gt the body, with Crude representation* 


ill ISM) UFUQ IOE7S a KB ETUI CaP r BaCKCKOUMP C4] 

of ft human face at the cod, ftud op a much unalEer acale (he anm and 
hands. Bnaplet of this type have b«a «cft■rated ft( B?th'*h*ftn ftnd 
elsewhere. One found recently at Lachlih bor* a poorly written Egyptian 
[ascription. including a reference to (he H Witm of the West/* Egyptian 
mummy-cnaes were doubl Ir.n-* (hr models for Lhew crude clay aa reuphagi. 

Phoenician kiugi of later centuries wen buried in web-made anthro¬ 
poid sarcophagi of atone in the Egyptian fashion: some of them, Indeed, 
were second hand Egyptian caiiu. slid bearing the Egyptian inurip- 
tions of their original occupants, with the addition of Phoenician inscrip¬ 
tions pronouncing dire curses on any person who should disturb the 
tomb and naively asserting that no treasures were buried in it. During 
the Greek period marble sarcophagi of beautiful workmanship were 
used at Sidop. Sarmphngj of Lhe Human period are found in Syria and 
Palestine. Good examples rth- those found in the tomb of Queen Helena 
of Adiabenr at Jerusalem leommu-nly known as the Tombs of (he King*}- 

ISA, To review in detail the types of graves and lombs Uied in 
FaJcsLine, and (heir history- b neither feasible nor essential here. The 
burial of children in jin under (hr llfrirs of houses or in (he k'iEEi. burial 
in dqlmena and (timuli and in natural eaves, artificially enlarged in later 
periods, and finally (he ending of regular tombs in (he ruck, with (heir 
evolution from (he early Aftft-tomb* to Lhe later elaborate tomb* with 
- loculi 1 for many bodies* all signify much the same general idea* regard¬ 
ing the future life, Devriopmefit in belief there w iS , of cou™. *s our 
literary record* testify, but no correlation can be shown between different 
types of tombs and the growth of ideas regarding the other worfd- 

Somewhat more rr%^m significance may be seen in (he erection of 
monuments. Thai the pillar* of (ieser and other masftebot may have 
been manunitnLt to th* dead has been observed in another connection 
{§ 137). like (he pillar which Absalom set up for hitttsdf in (he kin# - ! 
dale ££ Samuel \H~ I ft). siirh monuments doubtless reflected (he universal 
hap| of Him In he remembered. They probably siw. al least in same 
cases, reflect the practice of bringing offerings and pouring libations 
to the spirits of the dead, instead of mefrly placing gifts in the tombs 
lo start (hr on (heir new life and them leaving (hem to fend 

for thcmstivi'A.. There is more justification fur speaking of worship in 
connection with such continued ullrri^i and libations to the dead than 
in Connection with depositing gifts in the tomb al burial. That the 
practice drifted, however, i* n matter of inference frolu filefniy sources 
rather than direct arrhctiJugirjil evidence- 


WK*T MtA* THESE STOSTESf 


111 I5P-*S> 


vm 

In any ease, with all due allowance fur ihr tmbs and grave* which 
escape the udm>lo|Ht'i fyr fir have bv*n destroyed in thf count of 
the attit nlvi for the ruiEum of rrMiitij uld knibt for flew burials H 
it k dear that the totwl number was nWef adequate for nil the dead. 
Only the upper f|(UW^ received iuch special attentions mh tombs, ur- 
eophagL, and inoaument*. If Ihr use of the sarcophagi]* shows, as Gall¬ 
ing lu^rsta (OBR *45), that thf tkad nun n w«» thought of as m distinct 
iDdividuil, ihprr U no rvidcncc that the comma n man enjoyed even 
this distinction. Tomb A at Jericho held as many as three hundred 
bodies At fttarr pits full of the bone* of men and aniinah without 
any offrri ngi wnre found Such mass burials, however, *wm to havu 
been more common in the Bronze Age than in the Iron Age, and it remit 
he remem In-ml that * simple burial in the earth would Leave Little for 
the archeologist lu 4i^vTr. The apnaiian often used in the Old T«U' 
tnrnt^ “ he was gathered to his fithrr*/' has been ptauitbly connected 
hy Cu mmenlatow with the practice of burial in a family pave or tomb. 
The difference between the tombs of the mh and the simple grave* of 
IHm poor—a difference not peculiar tit ftscknt lim n throw* into high 
relief the keen confcbusneu of the Hebrew writers Ihnl in the under- 
worid social dulinctions wnv Abdkhrd <Job 3;17-ltb Isaiah 34;fl-]l; 
Krekid HzlT-SG). 

160. In connection wilb rtCeEl studies of the fertility cult and iti 
influence on Hehn'w religion it U claimed that the idea of the tHiimc- 
l»n of the dead wia involved (see especially il. Q. May, JUSL iSS* r 
pp, 73-&d 5, The death and resurrection of I he vegeta l ioo^god, as we 
have seen fj IM), constituted the basic cqonptkm fif the cult. !n 
(jTieco-Hflmiui times vegetation cults of this type evolved into lhe 
mystery rdigSona, which promised immortality to their initiates through 
mystic union with a dying and riling god. Thai such a development 
had already taken place in the Canaamte cult of Old Tesla men! time*, 
however, is improbable a pnwi, and to far as the preSCfl t Wti ter is aware 
ihrle is no evidence of it. The transition from culla of dying and rising 
regclalkn gods practised fqr the sake of good crop* to cults of individual 
mystic union with gods foe the m he of persona] immortality seems to 
have taken place only in the Hellenistic and Homan periods, when the 
national, local, anil agricultural associations of |hr old cults had been 
dissolved by the political and social changes whkb followed Alexander 1 ! 
conquests. and the individual. cut loore ffoin the M social moorings, had 
become conscious of hU separate exiitrllcc and anxious regarding hit 


<ll I«-«| 


KEUClQt'l! AJCD ETHICAL AACKOfOUWD 


f+a 


pcruiuE destiny, In the Old Testament, while Iherc are earlier ptsugn 
in which aIIuaiddi to indivjduil munition might be seen if there vers 
evidence that Hi t belief uialrd, there is cerUinly nn clear expression 
□f such a belief before the exile. 

101. The practice of reusing old tombs has been mentroued already. 
Tii mbs from [ireditu limes sometimes have extra chambers lit which 
list- bones of earlier burials were dimply piled together. In the Roman 
period a more respectful way of dealing with such remains became 
customary. They were carefully placed ill asnnrkx small dour cheats 
made for the purpose and artistically decorated. WaLxiligr? suggest* I hat 
while the Law would not allow Jews to adopt the Roman practice of 
cremation, the Roman cinerary Urns suggested to ihrfti the 14#e of 
ossuaries {WDP ii, 74). This custom irjk about a Century before 
Christ and persisted through the first century of uur en* r Often the 
name of ihr person whose bones were thus disposed of WH4 ifRtdsfil 
on the ossuary, in Aramaic or Greek or both, Personal name* fnniUEar 
to ua in the New Testament are frequently found thus reconSct! 4 showing 
that these names were in common use nl the time in Palatine, to 
some of the tombs *A this periud there were act only the regular cham- 
berm with long H loculi r for the bodies. but also extra rooms with nbolt^f 
ones for the ossuaries. The openings in both cases were clos'd with 
square alahs of stone. In pagan tombs th«e might be ndoTlwd h as they 
are at Palmyra, with busts of the deceased in relief ami inscrip¬ 
tions giving their names. In Jewish tombs such slabs would bear only 
inscriptions' the inscription regarding the bone* of Uflith. mentioned 
previously (§ 40 and frontispiece), id a good example. 

10*, Sattle evrdffl** ef conception* regarding the departed is In be 
found in iharriptknns. In the Ras Shamrah tablets and in Utet Phoeni¬ 
cian Lnicriptlons the dead are called Rephaim {rp'm }, p shades.* as in 
the Old TwUaeflL An interest ing glimpse into the ancient Aramaean 
idea of the hereafter is afforded by the inscription of Fanammu. an 
eighth century monarch of northern Syrm, who HUlnicti his son. when 
making offerings, to niter a prayer that Pana menu's soul may eat and 
drink with Hadad and rejoke in the offering* as the god docs (§ I #6). 

Unfortunately such dear indications are not common in fuOrpary 
inscription!:. Little if anything beyond the name of the deceased H 
recorded on Jewish tomb* and ossuaries in Palestine. For Hrikniftfe 
Judaism ! hrre ii a little more material. From the grtv^itcnei of Hellen- 
ivtk Jews it appears that the hope of a resurrection was far from bring 


*44 


tottKT MlAjff tube stosm ? 


<111W-31 


Strong And vital for all I lie fCirar reference* lo the resurrection, 
indeed. in corupiruQLu by tht-Lr ihuncc, The fame *orid''(reMintu 
shown by pagan epitaphs. in much the um language, appears iko on 
Jewish piT^ftMa, Eaprr&don* of a hop* of “ immortality itv memory," 
eihortalions to the sun'ivoll In be of good direr bfeauy On In&n ii 
immortal, and advice lo annkr the moat of life in Tiew of the certainty 
and nearness of death ortUf frequently, From kter centuries »c have 
orthodox Jewish epitaph* m Hebrew with the Old T«lunrnt c Xpm- 
akio which then a* later VII doubtless Ultra as an expression of the 
hope of resurrection; w May thy emJ be bound in the bundle of tire 
with the Lord " CL Samuel 45;Ait of these are later than New 
Tesla mv nI titnrm blit fo view of the fact that many uf the Literary 
sources or the Greek and Homan period* erkwe a strong; faith m the 
resurrect bu + it b nut improbable that imbfenotu references U mt and 
peace nn some of Ihe grave-alone* may mean, n* they do in Christian 
epitaphs, not merely ohlivkm but Eifr m heaven, In » far as any posi¬ 
tive hope appear* in Ihe epitaphs huwrVer, it il the Greek hope of 
immortality rather than Ihe Hebrew- hope of a future resurrection, 

Hdknialin influence k evident nol only in epitaphs bul ako in the 
decaniihn of the Bombs and sarcophagi, as well as the synagogues of 
the early Christian centuries (§133). Together with unmistakably 
Jewish symbols appear many with equally obvious pagan connection*, 
e, g- ctipidi and Ihe Cornucopia, E, R GoodeDough wt* in these evi¬ 
de nre of the Hr] k rustic Jewish mystery cull which he has drieded 
in Fhiloi writing (Bjf Light, Light, IBM; ef. JR It I&S7, pp. 18-46), 
The only qu^sLuft which may legi t tuutteJy be raised in Lhti connection 
is whether the uw of pagan ty m! kI in n i in Jewish a ri had a rcligvj-iJi 
significance, or whether it Was ini-rely decorative. On this opinions 
differ, but until Goodemiugh publishes more fully the results of his 
investijciitiiin in this field, it ii best to maintain an attitude of suspended 
judgment 

103. No Christian burials of the New Testament period in Palestine 
have been identified. By far the mu-sl important materials of this soft 
kftor*n to us arc the catacombs in. Home. The earliest of Lbne probably 
CQTnv from the lira E century, though moil of them are later. Brief 
inscriptions, such as H Peace lo thc*. H and a few simple symbol*, iaclud- 
ing the anchor, appear in Ihr earliest catacombs- The more elaborate 
symbols and inscripLions from subsequent centuries, while of great 
value for turfy church history, fad outside of our jHttKDt *tudy, Th* 


4 It 119-4} EELICIOETH A PCD FTIIJCiL HACES3RD fSD (4J 

Abundui remains of pipn tomb? in the Romin empire afr Intporlint 
U showing iht hopes and aspirations of t hi- work) m t h+r midst of 
which Christianity spread. Limitation* of Space foibid a discuadon of 
this material. but il should not be neglected by studtftlfl of early Kbrisli- 
anity. Not only epitaphs, but such tnnnu wmtU uf HrlEenistk- religion 
A* tbr-; mitral paint in of Pompeii. rt 1 pres*ft ring Lottie of the rtlr ■* of the 
Orphic mystery, ait significant for the Student of early church hislory. 

UW A great lira] regarding the moral ami Social ideal* o f the ancient 
Near Knit hu been brought to light by airhroleg^l (liifnvfriri, Inaerip- 
ti4iii- in E^ypl a* far back as the Old Kingdom, cotUrmptfRry with 
the Early Bronze Age of PalestLine, show a liir^ri^tgly high itandifd 
uf juiiiee. The literature of the Middle Kingdom, in the time of Abra¬ 
ham. shows not only high moral ideals in general, but also * *eiU£ of 
the rights of the common man and the social mjwAuhilitic* of rtlbt 
The social standards of Babylonia at this lime may be seen in legal 
records and collections of ancient law*, of which the most famous «■ the 
Code of Hammurabi. Old Testament scholar* wm aMOEtbhefl, when 
this code was discovered, to see hoar often it aalkipated and even went 
beyond the much later Mosaic legislation. The bearing of these (iCU 
CO the antiquity of the Hebrew Uwi hu been noted already (lid). 
Wr xhu.ll have to consider Idler the refalionahip between ibe Code of 
Hammurabi and the laws of the Old TealatnefiL and the significance of 
LhL -1 reiathonship (§ 1&5), On the whole Hammurabi s Saw* reflect a much 
more enmpk-x and in many tvspect* mote advanced society than that 
of the Hebrew?, not only is the limu of Moses but at any period in Old 
Testament history; a more humane spirit, however, and a higher religious 
altitude motivate the Hebrew law*. 

The Assyrian and HJtfitc codes from somewhat later ceplurif*, jttsl 
before the time of M»tf, show that much. Ibr same general Conceptions 
of law and juatk* and much lire same dock 1 order prevailed throughout 
all of western Aata in the mid millcimium before Christ- The tppfka- 
tien of the laws may be seen in counties* labials recording contracts and 
the midis or trial* and *uEu, Among the «e*t ulcrratihg uf these, and 
the HHt significant for the Old Testament student, are the thousands 
of tablets from the fifteenth and fourteenth centuries discovered at Nuri H 
not far from modem Kirkuk, the starting point uf the oH pipeline tu 
Haifa and Tripoli. Babylonian and Assyrian tablet* of later periods 
Continue the story and afford material contemporary with the books 
of the Old Testament. 


VUT UEAH THESE wmnw$ ? 


(I Hi) 


e« 

Specific examples of fmUrti between the practice reflected by these 
HMzm wpLS be mentioned In Lilr-r acClioft* *» explaining or illustrating 
passage* in the Bible. A few general points may be mentioned hem 
(n vk-w of I he fact that trial by ordeal plajt a Toty imaJJ part in Israelite 
law r Numkh) Jll-31 bcinfi lb t only certain iniUnrr, it b ml cresting 
to note that in tk legal practice of tk Babylonian* and Auyrimni and 
in the mixed Semitic and Htirriia oillure of Nuii the unJeml Li very 
prominent. A common type was the Hver^rieil (DUAL Sflff). The 
Code of KanuimrnKi usca this form of ordeal in the ease for which the 
Old Testament pmrribes t he ordeal hy the " water of bitterness, 11 til 
when a woman u accused of aduEiery , The Assyrian Code also uses the 
nverflfdeml in somewhat similar circumstances. At Nutt question* of 
property and personal disputes weir sometimes Milled by the river- 
orileaJ, both partle* apparently being subjected to iu with the pnrukiD 
» ™« cases that rrfuaal I a submit lo the test would be punished hy 
death (AASGE ivL Nta 7W). A ease of the river-ordeal in a docu- 
ment found at Mari ha* recently been reported. It may not be nut of 
pJaee fo remark that this kind nf onkal wodd not he practicable at 
Jerusalem or anywhere m the highland' of Palestine. 

Clearly reeled to the ordeal, and perhaps actually Involving some 
kind of ordeni vu the trial by oath. At Nun the partk? to a lawsuit 
weir sometime* ordered by the judges to take the noth of the gods. 
If *ilKcr parly H turnsd It »m lb* fpxU ” (it, appatfhUy. refuted to 
take the Oath), Hie case was awarded fo his library (DM AT «*-M; 
AAfiOR *vi h Ng, 73) , Something closely allied to dm practice appears 

10 be indicated Jn Exodus <2:7-11. In the case contemplated In verges 
W ^ P*rti« are required to H come before God." and iS he whom God 
shall condemn mmt pay hip neighbor double the amount involved in 
the suit. 11 the case described iti verses 10-11 " the oa th of Yahwch " 

11 apparently a soJema declaration of innocence which must be accepted 
40 fitu of restitution. A ease of Inal by oath appears later in one of the 
Elephantine papyri. 

Thr law of retaliation, “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth” 
(Exodus 21.24; Leviticus *4:<G; Ui-utcnrummy IDztfj- Matthew frW), 
has a prominent place la the ndfllt law codes. The Old Testament 
laws which belong lo this calory are relatively simple as compared 
lu the elaborate pto vision, of the Code of Hammurabi, A noteworthy 
difference II that the Babylonian laws asaw* graded penalties according 
t* the social rank of the offender and the off™fed party. The Dane! 
poem from Has Shamrnh (f 177) exalts justice for widow* and orphan*, 


>11 


ftcLtutm 1 * AftJ? rnilcAl, ba ex tutor.™ 


14? 


A characters tie institution of the Suiiui drfGttBoa which is of inter- 
«t in HHiaeclkm with Ifsbrew Itr and custom it whal bl ramc to be 
known as lalca-adnplian. Israelite law. h will he rememberrd, forbids 
thr ilicnilion of Land from the faintly {Leviticus ii: fn spite of 

this there was evidently a strung tendency to accumulate wealth «tirf 
nil ti» P depriving the poor of their inheritance (Isaiah 5 : Ji) . Whether 
the law *n yimply ignored or some way to evade it was deviled wr da 
not know. The tablets from Nun show that in that region, in the lime 1 
of the IlH'bfvH- palnarrhs, a way of evading a similar Law had been 
found arid had grown so common » to constitute an accepted legal 
convention. Vpfctifl All owner d ruled Id sell his property, he went through 
the legal form of adopting the ptwpndfr purchaser, who became thus 
a member of the family and so Could lawfully icquire the property, 
naturally for ■ consideration- Keeping within the law while defeating 
it* real purpose ia dearly no modem idea. 

One important point which emerges from a comparison between 
Hebrew society and the imtitutieni of neighboring and contemporary 
peoples is that the Hebrews were more froe and democratic than most 
of their neighbors. Perhaps this li only another way of saying that they 
were leas removed from the nomadic order of a«jcirty. The difference 
hero li conspicuous ai between the Israelilea and the Canaanitea. The 
city-stated of the latter wrre plainly organiitd on a feudal hn«is, whereas 
in fsnel every frH»a VU on a levd with his neighbor*, and even 
kings were not allowed to Assume despotic prerogative* without stern 
condemnation (e.g. 4 Samuel IS; l Kjnjpi 41), An outstanding *rohe- 
ologirol demo miration of one result of this difference may tie seen in the 
comparison of ranaanite and Israelite fortifications (j |po) , 

U1S. A comparison btlw^ts Israelite life and the standards and prac¬ 
tices of otfeef peoples in the ancient Near East is particularly instructive 
with regard tu the position of woman in society. On the whoJe this is 
one of tha points at which some of the other nations were more advanced 
before the time of Moses than the laraeliltw were even in the days of the 
monarchy, fn the Baby Ionian laws women had definite rights and a 
ftmsidcafclc degree of independence. At Nuzj they took an active part 
in Commercial transactkms, even becoming what in our days might be 
called captains of Industry, flow far this was true among the Cinun- 
Uet we do not know, hut * will found at Ras Shamrali leaves an estate 
to the testator's wife and servants And charges hts sons to treat their 
mother well and not try to bro*k the wflL A special study of the legal 
position of women in the ancient Near fcwt by Elisabeth M_ Macdonald 


WffJtT UEAX ItCE.SE fiTUSffl? 


(I I>il 


reach** the ccnduikm Hitt the greater economic freedom of women in 
Bibyknit and A'»yri*. *-* compared with luid 4 was the result of the 
prate/ w«lth of the** nitkms. which was partly due td the fact that 
in wir the Hebrews wrrt usually fighting oli the clrfffliivp on Lheir own 
noih where#* the? Babylonians and Assyrian* w*ged many profitable 
viUs of aggression in other countries The fp^uenl *hen« of many 
men on these expeditions aba promoted the rtOlKfflie activity of the 
women at hernru. The woemu of Israel did &Ol h*ve this incentive or 
opportunity (MFW 70), That even in ts/aol women played a not 
Lin \m fmr Utu t part in economic life, ■ t kast in the latrr periods, is dearly 
Attested by tie description of an ideal wife in Proverbs 31: I &-3I« 

In the marriage customs of all the ■ Mwbt peoples of western Asia 
then? are elements, including the So-calkd " bride-pric*,' which have led 
many scholars- 1o hold that the wife was Partly the property of her 
husband, legally if Pot in actual attitude* ami relationships. Innum*r~ 
able marriage runtrerlN. as wed at Ihe law codes, make possible an 
objective investigation of thin mailer. The- writer's own itudir* have 
led him to the ooftdurion that neither in Israel nor m the nrighbo ring 
nations Was the hast* of the inairbige contract purchase or ownership. 
What is often called the P hride-prir* 1 wai rather, according to primitive 
Semitic custom, a gift for thr purpose of gaining good w ill, establishing 
■ social bond, and mating an obligation to make some valuable return, 
Thr woman was neither the property of her father before marriage nor 
of her husband after marriage. She was n valued member of the family, 
and her transfer from one family to another was a momentous event in 
the relationship* between the two groups. That the Eegd proceeding* 
connected with this transfer assumed something of the form of an 
economic transaction is clear and easily understood (BRIM)* 

Mias Macdonald, in the work refrrred to abovr, rtpttnes surprise 
that there is little evidence of progress ns npinli posit tots in 

society from the twrnly-firsl to the fifth Century R, C, She points out, 
however, that kgnl forms and actual practice may have differed con¬ 
siderably i woman'* lot being sometime* wor*e but also sometimes much 
belter than the Codr-, would st^c. d (M E 3 W 7$). Il Is interesting tn 
note LU this connection that ft Idler from ft prince to his mother, dis¬ 
covered at RasShamrafi, Uv* notably deferential and affectionate terms, 
tn general, MiftS Macdonald conclude (f&Cr cif,), Babylonian l*w was 
more concerned for the physical welfare nf woman than the Hebrew 
laws Were, but the latter show more concern for higher sock! ami 
npjritua] ideals. 


{lilH-T} HUntOUS AJtD ETHICAL lACTCQODt?ifO *4$ 

160-. Comparative mreheolorijeil materials Far Lfcie study of social 
bleats and practices in later lime* are not go plentiful nn they are for 
the rorly period*. In ] iotarata. however, day tablet* continue to 

be used for mnny mtun^ and much may sifll be leam*d from them. 
One or Lhc Elephantine Papyri conloins n Je«t»h marriage? coil! met of 
the filth century B. C. Per the Hellenistic and Human periods qUath 
title? of Egyptian papyri are available* giving many vivid illustration! 
of the common life of the limn in thr t u K aEL »orld. An especially «ft- 
spicuou n frJiture of these, an computed with our sources feir the early 
period* of Old Testament history, Is I he prominence of children, Exprtl- 
tmni yf fttiiil am] parental affreUap are common in teller* between 
father* and mothers and their *hbx. “One letter from n tthootboy telLs 
tijH fftthi r not to worry about line M H s math e matin. Girt-# play HD part 
in *uih correspondence, presumably because they weft not **hI away 
from home to school. 

There is a darker fide (0 the picture also, ns wr should expect from 
I he pictures of coTitempara ry pagan liFc i n the New Testament and 
classical literal or-- A famous example i* the brutal advice of an absent 
husband to Itt wife Lo preserve her rKpected child if it u a boy hut 
expose it iF it b a girl. On the whole, however, the prevailing impression 
produced by the papyri is Lhnt human nature was remarkably like what 
it is m our limes. 

Id7, In various realms of life we have noted the coti tribulbong of 
iirchcnloity toward an undrralandipg of ancient life a* the background 
of biblical hbtnry. literature, ami religion. On th* whole ihLs is arche¬ 
ology’* greatest service to biblical studies. Thete at* aUo. however, more 
direct and specific contact# helwwn archeology and the Bible, To the 
study of these we shall addles* ourselves in the remaining chapter. 


ClUt-TtK V[ 


EXPLANATION, illustration. AND EVALUATION 

lflS. Witt tk new undrnit«ndii^ of ancient tile whirb 
gives ui we can underalind a number of things in the- whith were 

former]) 1 misunderstood or nut imilenEooil at nil, SypplelmTitiry infur- 
mation nl-ni provided regarding passage* which an- clear f-nOligh p* 
fur ii they jfo but incomplete. Some of Ihe mitenal islmnf) died in 
other Cotmcclkms would k equidy relevanI here, We fbrill lifrtf in thi* 
dupler tit her inlaUcrt, Along Wt\h cxplanationi which nFv crrtoiis nr 
reasonably nsunred will be included a few which are doubtful or even 
certainly wpoPg. in order to make plain that not all which U said jjs the 
nimc of archeology twh lw aorcpteiL The cMfujde* givrn bcrv have 
been ehown u b *mg typical of huh) Othera 

Many historical evcnU rttul devrbpmcn ts hare been cLarifird by addi¬ 
tional information from archeological wtircn Not much Hew material 
cl thin sort can be expected from the patriarchal period, hut even her* 
fotqyfrfag possibilities b*i^ cnme to light. Abram < Abraham) M staid 
to have been born in Ur of the Chaldee*. where he also grew to man¬ 
hood and married Sarmi (Sarah), Eater his lather. Tenth, took him 
and the r*H of the family to Uaram whence Abram ultimately went 
on to the Land of Canaan (GcomLi tL*Ma;3), Ur of the Chaldees 
m the famous Babybnian city which Wodley ha* excavated, though 
Some scholars believe that in the o rigi nal form ol the text a different 
city, farther north, meant. Haran u a city. Still bearing it* ancient 
nanm. Mi northwestern Mesopotamia. 

Uf was n great center of the worship of the mnon-god Sifl. anti I lari □ 
wmb s center of the same god* worship in the north, with a cult remark¬ 
ably like that of L'f. TbU suggests that a colony of mwU-wnrahippers 
from Ur mi grated to Hamm and established there the worship of Bio 
in the form with which they had been familiar al Ur. and that this 
migration w*i the historic*! framework in which the story of Trrah’s 
family should be understood * The theory can never, perhaps, be riliicr 
rtfuled or demonitrated; it may reasonably hr- held ad a working hypo¬ 
thesis, however, at least until something better is proposed. 

Th* connection between Terah and moon-worship has been drawn 
even closer by the theory of Yirolleaud* Dussaud, and others, that 

1 9» Dhnttm. fdkwui IVkkkf. 

fitt 


Ill MEPIJIh'ATTOST. rEJ.l ! £T1ATlDN. AMD EVALUATION £51 

Tcmh himself ippun in the ponn» of Has Sbmuli u a moon-god. 
Am worked out by Dusssud (DDK Idtiff), thU tlit&ry mterprrti the 
Keitt legend of Rat Shamrah ns lln- riury of a struggle between the 
lunar and solar cults, resulting in tlir expulsion uf the former. This is 
believed to eiplifo the departure of Tcfah fnim Ur mud certain traces 
of the cull of Sin in southern Palestine. A* we ha ve already had occasion 
Hi remark^ the tnpogrephittd identifications involved in this theory are 
DOl well founded ThU hai alio proved true of the supposed 

references tu T*f*h. which liavi? turned out to be concerned with 
mamufr and the bridal gift {frA, corresponding to the Akkadian rcr^nfu) 
instead of a lunar deity i'UASOR No. 71, pp. LtS-lOJ. The name Terah 
may have been derived from a common Semitic word mean i i ■ u; * J 
(yr^). but even this ip not certain. It h equally possible tlmt it comes 
from a word meaning 4 ibex/ found in Akkadian and olhrr Srfaitic 
languages, though this word itself may be connected in sen in- way with 
Ihr word meaning 'rniHjo 5 (JPOS riv. pp. ISflf}. in any raw, di^lf 
is ho sound reason for regarding Terek himself as a m our- god. though 
the theory will doubtless enjoy a ghostly existence for urnic yeah to 
come, 

19*. Since historical records fn Mesopulamia and Egypt go fat back 
beyond the time of Abraham, it m rot at all improbable that fresh 
tight on Hebrew history in the time of the patriarchs will tic cast by 
future ijivovrrie*. though It Is probably tec much lo both* that C¥ttfett« 
bearing directly on any specific event in the narrative of OrnHit will 
ever be found. For later periods much more U (O be espcclcd. Arche¬ 
ological evidence bis already filled in some gaps in 0111 Trslamenl 
h is lory. The tbtawtkn of Shiloh is nowhere narrated in the Bible, 
though it is implkd ih several passages* and Jeremkh refm Ur She 
city as having been completely destroyed (Jeremiah Trlfl. 14; SPrO, fi). 
Excavation has shown that this happened at about I USD H.C. pre¬ 
sumably at Lhc hands of the Philistines. Belh-shran also, da appears 
from the excavation of the site, wga destroyed at about the same lime. 
Simre il is mentioned m connect bn wiih the death of -Saul (1 Samuel 
91:lD g K; i Samuel £l:lifc). iU destruction was probably the work of 
David ( AAP 40)„ 

As a Further example of in forma I in ti From archtoJogiral wvureci supple¬ 
menting the biblical narratives we may recall the evidence of mining 
and smelting Eft the limr of Safomoh (4 110) The fact that SlUfoik s 
Invasion of Pales tine penetrated thr nufthem dr well as the southern 


WHAT TllPf flTOUf 


(II !!*■»> 




kingdom Ls Attotbff point nut recorded in Lhr Bibln but known. from 
archco logical evidence- Con tc mpofa ty Auyriui record* of events 
recorded in the Old Testament fill m many gap* in tic Hebrew nim- 
tivea, The fact that Jehu paid homage to Shalmaneser Hi. shown 
nn the latter's 1 black obehsk B {$77), ri not mentioned in !h t Bible. 

One of the beat tramples of supplementary information and e*plana- 
tion pmvtdrd by archeoJogLcal e^ide&« U the campaign of Pharaoh 
S«k at Ihc time of the downfall of Awyw. involving the death of 
Joainh of Judah it the hands of Necb* H when ho had '■eert him' 1 
(S King 1 * Historians of a generation ago were puzzled by these 

event*. A^inU wb was Nccho 1 * campaign diftftwi? Why did Jo*iftb 
go to Mc^iiCrEik to meet Neebo, and why did Nechn kill him? Belief tog. 
on the baii.ii of mch sources as they had, that Nineveh had not yet 
been overthrown when Nceho invaded Syria, »mc historians supptrtd 
(hat he meant to attack Aiiyria. In that case, however, it ia hard to 
*ee why ha should have been opposed by Jouah, whole religion HfonnJ 
do not favor the assumption that be wu a devoid vrimi] of Aoy™. 
The Tin by Ionian Chronitle published by Gadd in llfcfcf put* the whole 
matter in an entirely new Light Nineveh bad already fallen, but the 
Assyrian, umpire was still trying to with stand the combined attacks of 
the Me dr* and the Babylonian^ (§10), and Net ho came to lU support. 
Th\% explain* why Jttiixh, no lover of Assyria. made hi* fatal attempt 
to block the Egyptian invasion. The end of Nevho* campaign came 
when he met Nehuchadfrttnr it Cartheltdih on the Euphrates and 
suffered a dedMVc defeat. The city received at the hand* of Ncbncha- 
drerjuir'a army ibr mm\ violent treatmetil, of which graphic evidence 
was fouml s« the excavation of the rile. These rVrllK a« not narrated 
in the llihlr. but a pottB of ehulialiun over Egypt * d^fa*! ia given 
Ln Jeremiah W M*. intiw instance of a passage illuminated by archer 
olcigicaJl dlscovcrtH. 

170. The Larhith letter* reflect specific details of the Citation in 
Judah at the time of Nrbuchidrr nut's second invasion To 

connect any of their with particular pvumgc* in the Bible is tempting 
hut prccaricHU, As in all such cases, hypotheses are legitimate but 
should be carefully swrrutinired and checked. Torciynrr point! out that 
the divine element in I he personal name* in three fatten i* almost 
always Yahu Yabwchh never Baal, though the «irso* of Samaria, 
thfer centuries older, tun tain many name* formed with llaal. From 
theae fact! Torcsyner infers that there had been a religion* reform in the 


(| 171)) mFUKATIDN. ULUBTlAnDJf, ASH EVJlLVATIC* 153 

mran tinw T most probably Ihil of Josiah, dwfit>d in 4 King* 43 (TLL 
2Sf)_ This hypothesis may lw trtle though it cannot hr i b Em initialed. 

Far more questionable Is Torayfieif’i inlcr^Utbn of Letter III, 
tints 13-13, eu relcrring to the flight of the prophet Uriah to Egypt and 
hi* Imids brought \m*k lo hU death by Etna than the son of Arhbor, 
at rotated in Jeremiah i$:4fK43 (TEX 04-73), The lints in question, 
Lnasbtcd literally. trftil II follows: 

" . And Ed thy mitt Mil II hjth Vmi, h*I» Iuwmhi, i*rri(. Tk«r ■ ^itmiiL of I be Krmj. 
KinUi iJw ten 4if Ehmlhait. K*Ui O'**' 4*wft (f O* to t-K? pi. IIcKLirula ihe wti of 

AMitb *a4 hib w batk i* h#o« ” 

The word translated “ hcacr ™ in klk'V^l by AlbHfM to mean rl from 
him 11 (BASOR No. fW, p, SO), If this k correct. ad possibility of a 
connection with Elnnlhnh* commission to bring back Uriah disappears, 
and »e must render, M And unto Hodaviah. sen of Ahijah, and his men 
hath be sent to obtain (previ^m) from him." Tn any case Koniah 
the soft of EEhathaft in not Elnalhun the son of Arhbor. 1 More thin that, 
to connect the epitodr in the lellrr with that of Jeremiah £H Torciyner 
ha* to postulate not merely ail altera torn of the personal names hut 
altA a mistake m the statement of the Bible that the incident took 
pta lel the reign of Jehciakint. since the IcIUts come from the reign 
of S&eJekiab. The only alternative to this la-t infrrente is to suppose 
that Letter HE vu much older I hart most of the other*. This hu 
actually Wfi suggested but b me*t unlikely. 

The line* immediately following these refer to a letter saying 
w Beware!" which had come from (or, aa Albright translates, through 
the UtftniaentaJity of) » pmphet. Here tpq Tomyncr believes that 
Uriah U me*nt T and in Letter VJ, Jmcs 3-7, he finds stilt another refer¬ 
ence to a prophet whom hr takes to be Uriah. In this case the word 
1 prophet ’ has to be supplied by conjecture, being illegible on the pot- 
ihenl. and Albright, who is supported here by llempcl and dr Vaui, 
believes that the word was 1 princes. 1 J. W. Jock, who re tains the rend¬ 
ing 'prophet/ maintains that in both letters the reference ii not to 
Uriah but lo Jeremiah himself. In support of ibi- he point-* out that 
the words of this prophet are said to "* weaken t he hm ndt" nf the 
people, which it precirely the complaint made against Jeremiah by 
the pKnees (Jeremiah 33.4, PEQ 1033, pp. 173 f). This txm tempnnrv 

1 F&f J K^luh ' T , iiKi) , wr tmaindll trad 1 YifcbMyskii r fYMhhwiihi k ■iiiM* 1 

iLuif IULh AfObar; Ik Iih Minn: #nTf<#i| tlN mJl«I " KjoamO-' propMcJ by iV Vue iL 


WIUT MXAJ1 


(|l 1TO-T1) 


iM 

parallel For an erpmdott ured in the Old TrtUmeut La interest^ for 
it^ own iib P but of cwiw there « no reMon li> supposr that the 
expression WAS applied eaclmively to Jeremiah- Tk« were also other 
prophet lW Jeremiah of Uriah whn said “ Beware. H and whose word* 
wakened the hinds of the military party which was urging a stiff 
reaUtaure to the Eabyk>Bi*M- Jeremiah j name tt read by both Torvxy- 
art and Jack In Letters I and XVII, but in both ow it i* indistinct 
uncertain, and in neither case is their any thing to connect the 
individual in qu^tivn with the prophet Jeremiah- Thai Jercmish It 
referred to in Letters tit and VJ is much more lifcrly than that Uriah 
is mranh but it a «dy a possibility. 

Since ToittytrerV theory h generally rejected by srhedar* who hi*e 
discussed Ibe Latbifch letters, and Jack's is not likely to be accepted 
by many, the matter would not deserve so much attention here if it were 
not an HfCf lient example pt the perils which beret any attempt to con¬ 
nect ajfheotogkal material with specific event* or |kjtoua in the Eiblcr 
Esrtpl where names and dates axe given, aa in the Assyrian Enscrtp™ 
lioiM. idea litigations of this sort must always he regiftledl with consider- 
able skepticism. 

ITU Referenw* to particular events and individuals are not the only 
mtani by which archeology supplements the biblical narrative*- One 
of the most striking way* in whkb gap* in the story have been tiEkd 
in by archeological evidence is the new knowledge we have acquired of 
grea t peoples who were wholly or *D most w hoi ly unknown a few decade* 
■go. The EJyksos, of whom we have had much to ssy. are not named at 
aJJ in the Bible, and we cannot be sure that any particular passage 
refers to them. The Hurriam. who now occupy a large plare on Ihc 
stage of ancient history are not wholly ignored in the Bible, 

but Lhry were not recognized until archeology called attention to them. 
The Horitcs of the Old Testament, whose name was formerly supposed 
to mean 1 cave-dweller * an none other than the Hurrianj. The name 
Hi - - 111 - also Kniy bt merely the result of a lime-honored but mistaken 
way nF writing llorite. as suggested by the dnd teat oF Gtnnii 34-1 
and Joshua 9:7 i.SMO J3if; AASOB xiii. pp. id-31). The llittites. 
oftefl menUoEied in the Old Testament, were hardly more than a name 
to us until the archives of Eoghaxhdy were excavated and deciphered. 
The quantities cif Htltitc documenSj which have been published within 
the past quarter of a century have opened a new chapter in the history 
of western Asia (GHCA 43 ff). Our new understanding of there ind 


Ill 171-t) JI_Ll'5TiATIO*. AND ErJUTATMHf 


Si5 

otberpeoplcs of Ihi’ ancient New fk*t 4 with Heir migrations and 
mingling*, gives imw mrnmng Lo hiueb a statement i| that D f Erckicl 
14t = 3 - ■dtfprf«d to ihr city of Jerusalem: - Thy birth and thy nativity 
ia uf He land of Canaan; thy father w*v All Aumrite, ami Ihy mnlhti 
an EltlliU'." 

Ij 4. Another point at which a rehrolugy hju helped to explain Hr 
Bibb is til* delerminatio & of units of weight and measurement uurd by 
(hr Efebrew* The Sifoam inscription gives the bugih of Ihr tunnel u 
lim cubits. It measure aomeHinfl over 17M feel in IrnftH, bating b 
tub it equivalent to about 17.0 inches and the same result has been 
rr^ch^ by eutuparinR the measurement! of some of UnwJ'f building! 
*™ their dimensions a# sUtcd in ltt«My imiiM, Stone weights Found 
in. exavitviiLH ait sometimes inscribed with names used ii> the Bibb, 
enabling ns to determine what these units wm in terms uf oUr present 
rlay *yit,-mi (fig. S7.|. The jar recently unearthed at Lnchish with the in* 
Nmption hf « the njyaf bath (fi H7), show, what this common unit 
uf capacity was, 

Utensils and hnpkiaentc of common life found in excavations^ even 
though not conveniently labrfbd for »ur benefit, help to carmine more 
exactly lhati was formerly possible Ihr meaning of terms used for such 
^■bjrcU an l]-r Bibb. Barrois remarki rllMAfl i. JI4n) that the piek- 
marfcs ana the Si loan, tunnel hejj, us to tell what kind of tool the pur^n 
of the SEfoam ifiscnptfoi* and l Kings 0:7 w*,. An apeeiaity interesting 
atlriopt has rematly been made by A. M Hoeeyusnn La define on the 
basis of «rdKfllnpcaJ material the Hebrew mioaea of various tv™ of 
pottery Vessels (PEQ tOSp, pp Whib He ^reity and foei- 

uental nature of reference* to such vew-Is in the Bible make it impossible 
to connect all the Wned* twed with (kflnite vmk found in e*caualicmi. 
a few quite convincing identifications have hern achieved. Of particu- 
" to Bltle fvader is the explanation nf the “ pitcher" 

* in which women carried water and GHtttrt men coHceabd Heir 
U5fl *" (Judges 7:10, 10 f>, « the characteristic round-ba Homed, hob- 
mouthrd jar nf the Middb Inm Age {§ I It and fig. Sfl), The word u«d 
m Amos fl 0 for the bowl* From which the nobles of Omaris drank 
wmc u mtitcLcd with a common Middle turn Age type of rin f -h.*d 
kt*m with four handles. Sukenifc points «lt {PEQ Ifl40. 5D f) that He 
Arabs in Palestine now u« the name *ijl for a large earthenware wash" 
bassu, and that this is probably the meaning of the Hebrew mord jjfri- 
Lhn life oF the Vessel then gives a new emphwii to the use of He word 


—IT MUK THESE fiTttSK? 

m JmLnc% Si* and 0:33 Sodt example* u thr*? *how that hmreforlh 
who illustrate the Biblr woafld do well to consult *Kh»|n*fcat 
lilrntturt fnr the ' ami Unit kfclion + of their pictufr*- 

A similar pft#*** of eompnmoo between lilrntry «i*la and arrbr- 
ologienl ri-^rnfr k provide Up some extent with fetf®rd to Imth and 
um. nrttek* of clothing and nn.tHifrtl inrirumenU. Fur HW of 



Fijf. 31! liiarlile HuV-TtMirth" l*f* (AAiSOR Pt. 331 


^ii- M - (he qhjreli themselves arc not available (row FiJrttiawn c * Sfl " 
vjU though r<mi|kirabio object* may be found itL Fftypt- In ^rh 
c»« j > pc-iort must be hid, as Wr have wen. to juiinling*. reliefs. and 
artistic FT|imcnLntiDt», Gulfing attempt* ^ identify ill this way 
the name* toed for nuikll iiotrumtnLi in the Bible, vilh Ihr Miitl that 
Ln icvml «ws the plrVafrilV* translations air found In be wruntf (GBR 
The harp ami xither* Galling find*, were unknown pd ancient 
Palestine and Syria; the terms tinner and tifM should therefore not 



{|| 171-5} EXrtAK^TIDXi ILLlfiTKATIOV, AND EVATJUATTO!* £27 

hf Irtmliit^ % thf« wortin h isotfc of which indicate rather forma of 
till lyre. On the other bnd lutes appear nn Hie monuments, though 
ojr familiar Oin«Jltion« of the Bible do net mention them. Gtl|in{ 
supwtj thil til* idlii of 1 gAmuel IS:6 may have been a. lute- |ir admits, 
however, lhat it may bve been the Egyptian sislrutn (§ lifi), and it 
ia so taken in the University of CEiictun'j America n Transit Jolt. The 
standard English verriunr read^ non-no in mi I tally. M instrument^ of 
music, H suggesting in mniginil notes " trianglesor 41 three-stringed 
in*I rumenLs." Whatever the Pdii/im were, it svema to the writer most 
likely that the jute Ibr w hich Galling regard* as a kind of 

lyre, The same word i% used for n watcr-boltk', which the lute would 
somewhat rrscmhic in shape. The Aaftf. translated 4 pipe 1 by our English 
Bibkt, is identified by GdlltFi^ with a rharartcrinir Syrian instrument,, the 
double pipe represented in the bronze tripod from Megiddo {§114), 

Religious objects slid which are mentioned in the Bible may |>c 
■•X plained by archeotogital dj*ru verier.. The tab* rtiadr,. ark,, and ephod 
have already been disru.ss«i together with other &hrinex and sacred 
object* (5 l$S, 139. UtJ). Tire high priest's brautpUtfr probably 
similar to the 'pectorals 4 wutti by Assyrian rul rt*. An excellent repre¬ 
sentation: of one of these appeal* un an amber statuette of Ashunuisirapal 
(ILN Jan. ?, 1039, p. ii) t Our uJid era Ian ding of nuch supernatural 
beings as cherubim and seraphim is furthered by represeuta Lions of 
umiJar creature*. The cherub vw dearly a sphinx quite different from 
Raphael s chubby cupids (BA No, L p. 1; PtQ |p$Eh p. IT)* What 
Isaiah's seraphim may have looked like (Isaiah fliS, 0) is suggested bv 
a six winged figure on a relief, probably Huirbn (f &9), from Tefl Halaf 
in northeastern Syria (GBR MS). In either hand this figure holds what 
appear to be serpents, and the iefaphim certainly had sumc connection 
with serpents, for the word seraph is the sartre a* the word translated. 

fiery in the Story of Mom and the serpents in the wilderness 
{Number* d;*, S; cp. Isaiah 1#;*®; 30:fi). 

ITS. Before leaving this subject we may consider briefly a few particu¬ 
lar parages in the Bible which are explained or supplemented by 
archeology, taking them in the order in which they occur in the Bible, 
The tong lives uf the antediluvian patriarchs in Genesis S have evoked 
many more or ktc fanciful explanations. Babylonian tablets ihoW that 
such figures for the Uvea of prehistoric wnrthie* were a familbir feature 
m the traditions of Western Aria. In fact, the longevity attributed to 
Lhe patriarchs in the Hebrew narrative is relatively modest the avemgw 


WIIAT SrtEAK THERE 


fl iraj 


255 

reign (jf the BsHvkntin king* before the floo4 wu from thirty thousand 
t u forty-five ibouiand year* (ARU *4) III this rase lie archeological 
evidence doef not explain the ftfurH in Cienest* 5; it merely show* tkil 
lie Babylonian* too Kid tradition* of lung-lived primeval heroes 
If one citi beb*ve Lhat lit Scriptural statement* are literally true, 
it li entirely laical to hob! Umt lie Babylonian lists represent an 
andean dettl and confirmatory, though exaggerated, tradii Lott of the 
same historical facts. For those whose view of the Bibk does not 
require such * literal acceptance of these alalrmemta it is more reason¬ 
able to conclude that the Hebrew* had handrd down with more restraint 
than the Babylonian! the primitive tradition* of the original Semitic 
»Loek uf which bath peoples were descendant*- Chierm maltes the 
plausible suggestion that both Hebrews and Babylonians had received 
by tradition only a certain numlrer of naui™, and had to divide up 
among these the lime they supposed to havr dipard before the HocmI. 
The Hebrews limply did not think of this Utttt as being w* tentf as it 
naturally seemed to the Baby Iranians, *'ho h^-d before them constantly 
monuments of obvkmdy great antiquity- The at retching out of the 
lives of these curly hero?*. Chierm adds, docs nut necessarily make the 
lists entirely worthies* ns history (CWC 

Attempt* to connect the names in Grrtreh 5 with those of the Baby¬ 
lonian list* have mi succeeded. The nature of the gtflnlogkral list* 
in Generis, however, and many of the particular names irt chapters 10 
and II have been greatly illuminated by other a re hcologol discoverfea* 
Commentators have lunj; recognised that many of the ram re in Gcnrth 
10 are really th ok of countries. dt^a, or people- Thri chapter is there¬ 
fore often called the Table of Nationi Many of the however, 

were quite unknown until they were found In arehcobgicul document* 
(for exam plea Sec ARI> ii). 

In similar fashion the names of several of Abraham 1 * uicatort, aa 
well as fail brothers Nalior and Manm (GctlCtb ll l&tf), appear in 
the monunmts as name* of cities (,iRD 15} That men may have 
hortre the names of cities i* not impoM-iblev and of course rilic* may 
have been named alter mrn h but the fact that *0 many of the name* 
in this genealogy w ^re names of cities, together with the fact* noted 
above regarding chapter I0 h indicates lhat all these li*is fc while cast in 
the form of pedigree** were really intended to represent ethnic and 
gtographiral relationship* father than individual and family history. 
With Abraham the case become* different- Everything indicates that 
here Wf have 40 hutuHc individual. As noted above, he is not mentioned 


<li fcra^j tXFua.vrron, iLurwriATlDil^ *jus zvalvattos 


45 D 


in my kiicwn scum, but Mi Eunsr ippein M fUbykmk 

u * pertoiwJ nn-me a Lhr very period to which hfl bckopi. 

Tlie ilottblf nithes of Abnm-Abrtliiiii ud Sam t-Sarah [Ge^ii 17 : 5 ,, 
13) have been variously explained by commentators. In South Arabian 
inscription; the letter A is sometimes used u the sign of 4 vowel, ud 
Montgomery has suggested (MAR 1 STf) that originally "brAm (Abra- 
ham) wu merely an Arabian spelling of -Ana (Abram). The name 
Sam ti explained by the same scholar (loe.eit.) as the Arabic equivalent 
or Sarah. The ending -ui may also be Aramaic, and thin is more in 
areond with what we should expert in view of Sarah's Mesopotamian 
origin. An Assyrian tablet recently re-edited by Waterman is sail) to 
have been written by a woman named Sara! (ET ahx r pj,. T,i i , 


174. Social custom* whieh appear in the stories of the patriarchs 
have been explained in several rases by archeological documents, espe¬ 
cially the Nuxi tahleU, The fact that Eliezer was Abraham's heir before 
the birth of lahmael and Isaac (Genesis 15 *) is i ft accord with the 
Nnaian custom of adopting an heir when a man was childless. Sarah's 
act m giving her servant Eiogar to Abraham to bear him a son (Genesis 
.. . J ■PP^ra “ * common practice in the Code of Hammurabi, 
wtm-b provides that a handmaid who has thus been given by ■ wife 
to her husband and has borne him children, and who therefore trie* 
to pul hrnelf above her mistress as Hagar did, may not be sold but 
may be reduced to the statu 1 of a slave. As pointed out by C. H. 
Gordon <RB tow. p. 4 ) „ one of tie msrriage contracts of Nnii (AA50R 
s. No. *) stipulates that if the wife is barren she most provide another 
Woman for her husband and ratmot then drive out the child of this 
unmn. « Sarah drove out Hagar and Ishmael (Genesis il ID) 

w7w !Tk‘^ L " W * ,Cral>Mm hy "hen she ami Leah flrd 

w.LhJavob (Genesis . 11 ; IP) appears in . new Tight M a result of the 

d«cove ? of ftt lii. tableU. From one of the adoption tablets 
tRA sxut pp. |8fl fj n u, evident that there fcJU pj c]me 
between the pus™,on of the family gods and the right of inheritance. 
Ka*hel therefore, .1 would scorn, was not moved so much by piety or 
’X,'. " w *, “Cure for her husband' the 

.it .ha.Tl. " , * U,r ” l''»l"rty. It is not too cynical. perhaps. to 
SU^KCt thatth. same eon.ideraUous explain Labans distress at theloi* 

f *" bou * 1 ’?W <WUee. Just what these teraphira were is not certain 

W * rt ■*« ‘hose often found m the 

«cav»turns (|Jf there may be some Imlh in the suggest Z 


SHtty WXAT MUK Wftsisl 1 (It 17+a) 

*f Grain m and May that the story of R jU &H ud hrr fathers idftk 
has ^.hir eopnretion with the introduction of the cull of the niother- 
goddc*$ lo Palestine in I he Hyksos pttbd (§ 1*4; GMCC 1H). 

175. The reference in Joshua 11:131 to Canaaziito u dt«* that stood 
□H iheir mounds" ki icquifcd new significance through the discovery 
of the process by which the ■.orient was farmed 10)- The Yfl^T 
wijtiI tell, now tiw'd in tunny Arabic place names, IN the one used in 
Hebrew here and lnw*lal!iid u mound*.* Thi- trandaloftt of the Author¬ 
ized Version wew not aware of thrtC facts and rendered the phrmtv 
H in their strength * The American Standard Version, gives the eonrcl 
translation. 

An interesting and romantic but unfortunately questionable explain 
lion of Jin obscure passage web suggested by the discovery of the undent 
system, of water-tunnels under the site of ancient. Jerusalem. While 
lie tunnel from the spring to the pool of Sifcoam was not made until 
the time nf Elnduli, it follow^ m part a far older tubftvi. fnm which 
water was secured for the City through vertical of fcllfloat vertical 
shafts. In £ Samuel 5:8 David, attacking Jerusalem, say* " Wkswver 
gellelh Up to the gutter, and smitefh the Jebusites, and the Lame and 
the blind, that art luted of David s soul, he shall be chief and captain." 
The lust cilUH it amply UWfted fmm the parallel in 1 Chronicles 11:0, 
not being represented at alt in the Hebrew text of £ SamUeL I Chronicles 
dot* not mention the " gutter H but says that Joub *wn the position 
of chief by going u p first. The word translated ** gutter ! " (* wuteC 
course H in the American Standard Version) is the same rendered 
m wa terspouts ,k in Psalm 43:7 (ftnwtfr)- By putting aU thrse things 
together It has been cupjeetumi that Joab crept, Into the tunnel from 
the spring and climbed Up through the shaft into She City, taking the 
Jebuiile* by surprise. Tourists in Jerusalem for Some year* hive been 
told this thrilling story when visiting the spring. We could accept it 
with more Confidence if the meaning of the word pnm)r were really 
known. Sukenik has argued (JFQS viii, I3ff) that at W*» the name of 
a weapon resembling the trident, and that the pewnge means “ smite 
them with Ule trident" It must be admitted that this l* possible. 

SometLEnwi perplexing detail* a detc4tif« passage* may he cleared 
up by comparison with archeological data. In the description crf. Solfr 
mans temple it seems strange that the height of the " oracle rl or holy 
of holies is given as only twenty cubits (1 Kings 6:20), while the outer 
temple waj thirty cubits high (verse 3) ^ The assumption of an upper 


(I 1M) ILXI'U.SATION. ObQIEUffflllt, A5D HrAlVATKtjf i&\ 

rtory over the holy of holies mny accouhl for part of the dlffi mra f. 
but mi all of it. VYi Lunger points nut that in ancient temple* the floor 
of the shrine »-as ntmuonJy an a higher level limn that of the 

miter martniy. if one roof covered bat h ports of the temple. I here- 
fo», the inner room rtuld not be as high ffum flour Ld ceiling u the 
other room wu (WPP i, BO). 

In 1 Kings it k nid that Ahab built no H ivory hmtte." The 

forty-fifth Psalm, wbith may have Jiecn written as a marriage hymn 
fot Ahab and Jezebel, refer* to “ ivory palace# " (terse S), an it about a 
Century liter Amus pwjitta (hr doom of the " beuai of ivory " (d:15) + 
SitKr it can hardJy be supposed that whole building* were nude of ivory r 
Ihtie ripmaioni have puulril She commentator*. The dneovery of the 
ivory carvings of Samaria (j 1M) provided a **t isfaclory explanation. 
These Ullk panels w?r« clearly inlaid in the woodwork of the palace, 
or tit mi idea of furniture, and the Fact tha t Ihia detention was the 
ifUMt Chirac teriitie feature of the building led to ita being called a 
house of ivory. 

The Ras Shanirah tablets, along with alt their other service to Old 
Testament studies, have suggested a plau^hk expbi nation for an ohtturr 
Expression Eb S Kings 15:3 (1 Chncmidt* 2G:2I), When Axariah 
(UAriftb) became a leper, we arc told, he had to live in the bit ha-haptii. 
Uienttj this mca.ni “ houie Of freedom," hut just what it signifies ha* 
been largely a matter of gurwWcrk Gur tlngluh translation* da wh*l 
they can wit k it: the Authorised Vcniun reads " a seven! house," ntu\ 
the AbkHcm Standard Version chaoses this to " separate house." sug- 
Kiting J ' infirmary H in a marginal note. Two passage* in the Haw 
Shamrah poems slate that Aleyan Baal descended into the bt hp$t m and 
thence It* the Underworld. From this it h** been inferred that the place 
Id which Aiariah warn committed was a e*ve or cellar, perhaps a base- 
tncnl of the palace (RB l*37 t p, ASA ]. 

When Hcfekiah was "i»k unto d«Eh r with a boil he was healed 
by having a take or lump of figs placed on the boil, an directed by Hit 
prophet Jsaiah (If King* SO; 7; Isaiah 3#;*1). The Hebrew expression 
for a ' tun!p or figs occurs M-veraJ tia« with anotW expre-Aiifin mean 
Mg ' hunch of raisins; both being staple articles of dirt in the Kemr 
Eut (I Samuel IB; 30:12: \ Chronicle* It 40), It is not particularly 
surprising to find the same words ocmlmng together in Ihr Ras Shamrah 
uhkt*. Alow Ufn£fc*at ia it that lumps (dbit} of figs were used as 
poultice* for hones. What VU good for a horse, it kcuis. w H a good for 
a king—perhaps Isaiah * superior wisdom lay in the perception of the 


WHAT MAX THERA KOTO ? ITJ-T5 

fut |bit sick kin£1 itid lick hw«i ift much alike, M any rale, t^ e 
paraJlrl i|qwi lb! the medicinal u*c of Eg* in thi* instance WII ool 
wholly arbitrary, but vu b«d on a pt«G« long ncoflntfed m Western 
Ash, 

The SiloBm mjcnptkm, which has rolttt ml* our d ■**«&* wn al several 
jwiuLA. may be mentioned befr alio, because it adds list A little to th*- 
information given in * Kings *b:W. An especially vivid touch U 
imparted by the rtntratnt that (he workmen, he wing their wav through 
Lhe rock Ifwn either end. reached a print where tho« cm one sole 
cud hi h tat the strokes of the others h pfiokl. The place where the two 
parties met ran be seen fc th* tunnel In tttl day, clearly hliftad by a 
difference In the level of the tunnel and a change in the direction oF 
the pick'marks, 

170. Turning to the Psalm*, we may note brieRy an important theory 
regard mg mme oF them which 1* fcwtd on areheqk^rat evidence. 
&_ Movindcd mil otheri have railed aLtentiod to the fact that in Haby- 
lonii afi important Feature of the New Year’s celebration wart the ritual 
enthronement of the god, whose place was taken in the nrtmo^i by 
the king- In t special group of Psalm* (47 and 08-100) there are many 
■laleiUentfl that God reigns, that he has gone Up, that he aiU oil his 
throne. and the like. In Ihete MowLndcel and theme who Follow him 
Mre the evidence oF a New Years ceremony in the temple it Jerusalem, 
involving the annual ir-enthroncment of Yahweh (§ 14J). The chief 
pohti in Favor oF Lhia theory are that the Pulms fit very neatly into it. 
and that a ceremony of this iorl certainly existed in Babylonia, The 
mnrn difficulty i* that there ia no mention oF inch a celebration any- 
where in the Old Testament. nor anything which would ever have 
suggested it withnut the Babylonian practice. Apart From acme details, 
the primary thesii may be true, but until further biVeiligation and 
ditcuuion bring more cohdusLVf argument* than have yet been advanced 
it must be regarded aA UfldeiMO Ultra tod. It is mentinned here because 
if true it k an oUUlanding in*u»« of explanation by a rchcoEngkat data. 

117. Aa an example oF parage* ill the propfeela which hate been 
illuminated by archeological discoveries the referencea to Pam*] m 
Ezekiel may be cited. In IV14, tO Dankl » named with Noah and Job, 
the three being dearly chosen m supremely rt|bl*cua men. In iB:3 
the king of Tyre it i*Hi to be wker than Daniel. Naturally tt*dcri of 
the Bible have supposed that in these passage* the hero of our bonk of 
Daniel waa meant. Hia wisdom and righteousness would make the allu- 


(EllTT-SJ EKFUAJfATIOS, tIXl'MU.SfTUN, AMU LTALl r AT[[^ §fl3 

ftiod quite iuilib^ r And tin? difference in the spelling of the name Ccfn'-i 
ifi^lrad of dnx*l) it not insurmnWfitwhle, however, we bve from 

KiU Sbamrah a poem concerning A divine hero whose name ii exactly 
whnit find in KickarL He *tLi nt the gale. judges the nu^ of She 
widow, and establish*} i the right of the orphan. A rdnwt In auch +\ 
figun- of North Canaanite mythology would be eminently appropriate 
in |hr paiaage addressed to the king of Tyre* ami de Van* iUggcil* 
that in chapter 14 Ezekiel group* this Dalfd with Noah and Job as 
example! of great virtue ouLsiilu of I*rp,r| [KB ItittT, pp. Wfj. What 
nlaliop there may have been. If *DV. between loan'd and Dwnid ia ■ 
question that calls tor further study. In *tiy ease one can hai-dlv ifouht 
that tf» Han>] referred to in Ezekiel h I hr same as the 3 >jiuV| of the 
text from Ha* Sham rah, Here is a group uf biblical passage* which have 
been put in ah entirely new light hy a peer fit nrch-eotrigimj dlKtiVeiy. 

A km certain but noteworthy instance k the mysterious JJ alMinina- 
tmn that makelh desolate +i of Danfcl IUM and 12: IT In Mark 13.= 1# 
Ihij figure rcapprars u the “ abomination of desolation H in a way which 
make* it practkmlly certain that the reference is to the imagr of the 
emperor Caligula, which he ordered to be set up in the temple In 39 
A. D. fn Daniel a similar allusion to the profanation of the temple by 
Atiliochu* Epiphatie*. is plainly indicated by the cofiktt. Aniiochus 
ij said to have wl up iu I he temple at Jerusalem a pagan attar and 
an image of Sku*. Ju Syria at thb Lim* Kens was identified with ibr 
Semitic lJ l^nrd of heaven." who MpprtLfn in inscription* a* bt imm. In 
the Old Testament the word iufifdj l abomination) is often used for 
pagan ddtifs, The word meaning 8 that maketh deflate" Im Mmim 
(in 12:11 m'i&jtrfm; cp. 0:27). Thus ftqqu# JdmJ -in, w abutninatinn that 
mxkcth dewilater ls probably an ironical play on b"f imm r “ Lord of 
heaven. 18 Hut juat what aai the object irfeiml to m this scornful way! 
An exhaustive investigation by E. Bkkerrnann. embracing a vast amount 
of arehtohgical material*, has ted to the conciuiiori that the H abomina- 
tkm" wu a small stone altar or tnauebah (g 137) creeled on the great 
altar of sacrifice in fmnl of the temple, and regarded ti representing 
the presence of the daily (Drr Crvtt drr Makkabatf, gap. |Qi-0). The 
demonstration, is not fully conclusive but the whole study i« «n extra¬ 
ordinary Illustration of what may be dune by this kind nf rmrafth, 

178. In connection with the language of the New Testament *r have 
wan that many word* h**> heril explained by their use in arch *>o lag icah 
literary document* (|41). A <-*«■ in paint for our present purpose 


what mian Ttt&sx errotftt? 


<1 im 


s&+ 


u the "alabaster box" (Greek &fabiwfrot!i) ol Mart 14:3. Vowels of 
Digger for oil and ointment were replaced i n the HcUcniBlic p«i»d 
by glass balllc^ but tbc word aMrafirwi was still Used Far these, Ttey 
were staled, Aiid mm opened by braking the neck, and that it double 
kit wliat the woman did m this instance. 

Aiide from such explanations of particular words or cqnrssfcDi And 
the solution of topographical and chronological problems there are 
relatively few puuK« in the New Tei lament which can be riplamed 
or lubsLanthily lapplelWllled by archeology- Social and religious cus¬ 
toms attested by a rebco logical document* .wraetimrs make dear *Ut 
would Otherwise be obscure. aa in the CWf of the freemen of Apollo 
at Delphi (§41). In the Geapd of John there Lb a pftW which has 
AoreSy pujufjrd co in rne nth tor*- He I hat btlrtveth on me, M the sefiptu re 
hath naid. out of ha belly ah&LL flow river* of Ireing water" {7 • *3) - 
Rj-hefo and images. show that this reflects * very Ancient Orient*) Con¬ 
ception. Ciodd« 5 ci holding agALosl their breasts jin from which streams 
of water flow appear, Ibr rajunple, on a relief of About Tt. C. found 

a! Ashur. Much more ancient is a statue unearthed at Mari, rcpitn?at- 
itijj «t goddess who holds Against her body a vase so rchnstnictcd that 
wat^r front a rwr^flir could flow into it and make it overflow. Possibly 
this was one of Ihc contrivances some limes used in pagan temples to 
impress the worth ip|?eir* with what would appear to them lo 3>e a 
miraeta. In the Gos(«-l or John, of course, what we have is a bit of 
ancient symbolism used with a new meaning- The ideas. of the bread 
and water of life in this fBpel are other examples of this, going bide 
ultimately Id Babylonian ideas. 

The book of Revelation u full of such symbolism, pome of which 
cannot be explained with our present knowledge. Ideas which were 
doubtless familiar to lb* original reader! ire strange to U»* Jim recovery 
of the ancient thought-world reflected in tkts book is an uncompleted 
task for irthmki|ifil research. The Raj Bhamrab poems promise to be 
especially Uldul for tbla purpose, in spite of being many centuries eatUer 
than the book of Revelation. Their prt*nlatmn of ancient north Syrian 
mythology, when compared with the Inter accounts of eksnnt writer*, 
will bring into sharper focus out rather vague picture of the religious 
ideM and symbols of western Alia, which form an important part of 
the background of the Apocalypse- Points of this sort have been noted 
in the Keret poem iBASOR No. 71, p, 33) . The study of the Rai 
Shamrah literature itself, however, must proceed farther before much 
UK can be made of it for this purpose. 


f#j»> Exri.ANArioM, uj-ufinuTiax, ajcd eyaluatiqv ^ 

Then: ji(t also rainy passages which arc not explained or suppte- 
mcotcd by archeology hut art strikingly lEEustni t cd. Incidental fe/er- 
rncci- to Miniiiyti objects of daily lift arc capable of almost unlimited 
nrehcolcgical illustration. which add* vivitbui and reality to the ntm- 
Throughout both Old and New Testaments. moreover, figure* of 
speech are frequently drawn from pots, plow*. mini, hottae*, 

Lowers, and many other homely object*, Sometime* these become 
symbols of important spiritual Ideas. Biblical name* which occnr in 
inscriplbtia and seal*, if they bare no further significance, add a touch 
of reality. Cora* issued by rulers mentioned in the Bible have the same 
illustrative value. One day during the excavation of firth-zur the laic 
Father Lagrange, eminent Catholic scholar and faiunlcr of the Doniioi- 
can Ectifp Bifalique at Jerusalem. visited the site and was shown what 
had hern discovered* Even though he bail lived in the Holy Land for 
cnany year* and had seen many an cxcavatKHi H he expressed a feeling 
of inherent wonder at being able to hold m hk hand a cob of Antbchns 
Epiphanej oq the very spot where the Jew* and the soldiers of Antbehu* 
had fought some of their firm I battles. The average reader of the 
Bible Ciftoct have jwt that experience, but the writer ha* often observed 
when lecturing on biblical and arehedngical subjects the intense Interest 
people show when they are abb to see and handle a with the name 
of Nero, or one Issued m the lime of E ltr®d of Pontius Pilate. 

Titles and epithet* Used in the Bible are illustrated in suds and 
UtscTjpliuns. The use „f the word H servant ‘ Or J dkve p as an expression 
of political senility fun been noted in the Amanu tabled and the 
furbish letter*. Its use a* a title of considerable official dignity appears 
J? w ^hema t Servant of Jeroboam;’and ,J Jaaraniah, 

Servant of l ^ r K ^ n ff. u to name only two, were doubtless proud to affix 
their seals with this title lo official document*. Getkliah'a **j f the 
imprvision of which on clay was found at Lachish. use* the title ’ who 
faunt * KVtn * Old Testament passages (e g Gen 

Davjqr titles ud epithets also receive archeological illustration The 
Bus Shunt toxtA of Eco q*e for Ibo gods the common braille id krai 
_^sons of the pxftT illustrating the u* of the term " son* of God " m 
Geneses 6:1-4 and III Job 1-*, EJ is called In the Ran Khammh poems 
the father of years," recalling such statements as that of F«dm m *4 
Thy years, are throughout all generations^ and the espressos “ 
hulltig Father w (Isaiah 9:4) and "Ancient of Day*" (Daniel T‘&, |i 
. The words used by John the Baptist m John T r 2f), Sfi, “ the Lamb 


WIIAT tef A* THESE ETMfPsf 


■III (TS-BOj 


oF Grwi, which Ukrth away %h* sin* of the woTld, iK a» dnubLleia ba*rd 
oti Imirnh 53; 4-7. unci both passages ape tUmlrmlcd by uiscriptions regard¬ 
ing the U*c oF lamb* m aacrigee. A Babylonian mscripticiD frum Ur 
lays, w The lamb is the jubalilute for humanity . . . He hath given uf> & 
Jamb for hi* life ^ (KT jivii, p. #15). The pharaohs nF Egypt claimed 
La hr nnu of Hr, and njfh titles as Savior and ^in ■i F God air rrgu Lariy 
applied La icLisgi and emperora on Hellenistic and Roman lv.ij n 4 and 
mseri plans. One of ihc Friend mvripUnni speaks of llir emperor 
Au pi i r^liis in Ilia very word* u»d of Jeans by the woman of EWmaria. 
' B Savior of Lbr world w (John #l4£} + 

I BO. The pauagr in Genesi* mentioned above (5:1-1) Irik of U» 
btrth of the Nephilim or giants, who arr mentioned Aim in dumber* 
13; 33. A similar idea id primeval gianL* but with a diUetenl word. 
Rcphaim, appear? in other Com men talari have suggested 

that the Israelites probably believed there had been giant* in earlier 
time* because of the ruegalithic remains they found in the land and the 
niasaive CiM*nik Fort [fl cations, which might naturally seem to them 
the work ()f DO wd i nary mortal*. Of murw the date of the megalith ic 
■liuctums (| 101} tffecU the truth or this theory, but at least the great 
f ori i Gca! ioni of the Middle BniPW Age were already ancient at the lime 
of the Hebrew conquest. How lh**r probably impressed I he Israelites 
h illustrated by the remark of m passing bedouin tn Pnfeasor N- Glurcfc 
during the latter 1 '* riptantbsi in Transjordan. Seeing the party tHAfliin- 
ihg the remains of a megalith ir huildihg, the Arab remarked that for the 
men of olden limn it was easy I* handle *Ueh great blocks of Hope, 
because people then a cre giants {GQSJ 5 0 The feeling of the Israel¬ 
ite* Oh uf Ting the Bronze Age forfcifteatiohi is expressed also by the state¬ 
ment that thf 1 Oumatnio cities were “ wallvd up to braved " (Dtuler- 
onomy 6:3). 

Mesopotamian buddings, especially the aiggaraU or sacred towers of 
thr Babylonians, dluslralr thr story of thr Inwrr of Babe] [Genesis 
ll l-d). The reference to the Ux of brick bijlcad of stone and of 
H 4bc " (i. e. bitumen) for mortar reflects the difference between the 
building methods Familiar In thr Israelites on Ih^ rocky central plateau 
nf Faleitinc and Lht mrthoiE* used in the itondrd alluvial plain of 
Babylonia, Archeological ilJual rations may be given For many other 
passage in Genesis. The reference to Judah's ua) in Genesis 38; IB, 
2 $ is illustrated by the numcrouj heals excavated in Palestine (§ 1*7) . 
Accounts oF going down to Egypt n limes of famine {If:!!*; 4€:lf) 


(II itvuil) XXrUlPfAtlU*,. ILU sniATlO^, ANP KYALUATlftN W 

bring to mind Egyptian reftFrhfti to Asiatics who cmiit la %ypl for 
this purpose. A piety re of Veiling Semite* may be *etn on ihr W*JI of 
£l tomb at Beni Kasm which come* from a time hot fir fratti that of 
Abnkm. 

In addition to social customs explained by Lhe Nuzi tableta and other 
ancient document* i § 174), there are ethers whirh are merely ilJustrated, 
but which thereby become somewhat Iras strange and unreal to the 
modern reader. The custom of Leaving some of the harvest in Lhr field 
and allowing the poor to glean it. as Ruth did (Ruth £: ep. Leviticus 
]fl;B f' *3:2f: Deuteronomy 24:10-21) w t ab clearly an accepted practice 
at Null Lika all relief measures, it vai subject to abuse, for one tablet 
records the prosecution of certain servants who had stolen grain an lh« 
pretext of gleaning (AASOH xvi. No. TO). Another biblical fitiKlkc- 
foreign let modem Occidental life is the lev irate marriage, by which the 
widow or a man who left no son was taken by bts bmlhcr. the offspring 
of Ibis union being counted as the child of the dtreaged in order that 
his name and Line might not perish (Doric re Mitt} 1 cp. Ruth 

M), Practices related to Lhis r though DOl quite the some, appear at 
Nuri (CMT No. 441), and also in the Assyrian Code and the Hiltite 
Code. 

Of the innumerable pssages in lie other historical books for which 
archonfogiefl] illustiH lions may be found only one wilJ be noted hem. 
The claim made by Cyrus that the God of the Jews had commanded 
him !o rebuild the temple at Jerusalem (2 Chronirb Ecra 1:2) 

has * parallel so close as to be almost amusing in an inscription which 
makes a similar claim that Marduk, the gmj of Baby bn P has given 
Cym a special eonunisswn I BAH 43d), The tWA claims put together 
exemplify the shrewd Oriental diplomacy of the Conqueror who brought 
Lhe Babylonian exile of the Jews to art end. and who evidently ^pre¬ 
sented himself-to other peoples alio is their deliverer and the champion 
and Servant of their gods. 

IHI Illustrations of many expressions and ideas in the poetic and 
prophetic books of lhe CHd Testament have appeared in the Ras Sham- 
rah |Kwms. A line in Lhe epic of Aleyan Ikil, *' I kfww that Alt van 
Ba*l lireth " i All L column iii r ILciv 0) p spoptU ilartlingly like Joh 
IP:25, “ I know that my Redeemer liveth,'" though the parallel is not 
quite » dose in the originai languages as in the English. Poetic aRu- 
*fo0s to ancient Semitic mythology occur in a number of the Old Testae 
ment books. Some of thrtc art illustrated by the tests from Raj Sham^ 


2GB WHAT MEAN THESE tiTvXt*? ,}f | 

mb- An especially remarkable p&ralici |* iev F ml biblical pa;wane* is 
afforded 1 >v these lines: "as thou didst untk Lutim, the ftmng ^rpent; 
ai thiKti itkd»t rcumitue lJit rrr*Qkcd nrprnl, (nighty one nf icien heads M 
fDH L'liInmtL i. linos I“3j who h mentioned in other trftlj alvj. 

is clearly tltr Leviathan i>f the Old! Tefftfl4&rftL; in fact the tfcbrrw ni*rno 
nu_V be (Taj H Ldtflb " by using difTrnMil vo»rls with the *atnr con- 
-onants. Tbt? H rfwkn3 serpent** u mentioned rn Job tuiiuh 

47; I refers II* Gik|> punishing "Leviathan the swift serpent even 
Leviathan the crooked serfient" using the fiinr words h% the LTflrmlie 
|n>em. Thr head* of Leviathan are mfntiufted in Psalm 74:34. Psalm 
HM; W tty* that GM made Leviathan tu play in the .urn, Ih Jab 41 * 
dcunption of LevutltMi is green. though wine cnmmrnta torn believe 
that here thr fuiiem? is applied Uv the enwdilr Th«- primeval draff?n 
c Hebrew tannin) nisei plays a pert in the Rju Stuunmh poems. The 
rrforrnn- in Ptnlm DS:M to God's superiority Ur JIumI* n fhI waves may 
be ati sllusioli lo »m* form of a myth in which ihr waters rebelled 
agamst 6<nl h ns in one- of the Ras ^IiitiIi poems (boy rebel against 
BuE but Of* put down i KB). .\lbnght sees a itHccIjob l.T such a myth 
m Job 3;a whtte instead of ytim. " Jay/ ho roads yd-i. *i«/ taking it 
** “me of lilt pricminHul sea-dragon, In Jnh fl:» also he would 
lake the sanit wmd u the iwfne And tmtvdalr + *am) Who trends on ihr 
i»ek trf Yam " (JBL likik, t ., «T) Pwribly there U alv an fdw „f this 
myth in Isaiah IT; l4f, 

Eiprrwions Familiar in the Pnkl occur frequently. KNpeciiiHy dose 
i.s thr paraLIrl to Psalm P2:& is Ihr lini-s. * r JLj.j. thine cue rn iet, O Hau l 
[^ 1 , thjoi- enemies wilL ihou smite; behold, Ltmu wilL cut off thine adver- 
pencs 1 (KB, [Foes Bf). Imrmdiairk- fallowing this is an equal? itrik- 
in K peraJld to PttLm 145; 13 (cp. Daniel 4 3 etc). The title Applied 
bcventl times in the poems to Haul. Rider of the cloud-" f§34j d 
roJErcti an idea like that of Psalm HH:3, N'ahum 3:3 b and ttpxmRy 
Ittuh 313 I Ht L. Gibber*, h*i pointed nut many of these pirtJMi fe 
holds that thr connection between the Paabru sad the Ifganlir jxjcms 
i.» much closrf Umn a mrre sbniienty of lonpua^r jind ideas. We shall 
have to onnaidrr liter the b^ititig of Lh*#r conLacls un tbe origin of Lhc 
PWlmv (| ISO). 

hi ermsidrr any of the tn#ny olhrr illuitmtions 
of flld In ^BmcnS pawhich intjtbt be cited, we may consider a 
few instance* rn the Mew Tntamcnt The great stones of (he tc-ULidc 
which arouse! the wonder of If -sus diseipJcA l MaHt 13 : 1 ) m iliuitmtrd 


il imf mpi^TCATiojf,. nuiwnofi, rtift&iiATtoP tsa 

by thr portions nf Hemdiu muoniy a-till to be ucn in the wall at the 
temple eodfisurf. Ptiil'i words about ** templet mad;: with biodi 11 
and idoti of “ gold or silver or stone, graven by art and man's device” 
(Acts IT:£4, £0) find manifold illustration? in the temples of Athens and 
other Graeco-ftoman cities and in innumerable statues of their deities. 
Some of the very buildings which doubtless were in plain view as Paul 
spoke are still standing. The reference in this same passage to an altar 
dedicated “ to the unknown God 11 has no exact parallel, hut altars 
inscribed “ to unknown gods./" in the p3unl H are known. 

EKtavitioDi have been carried out at a number of New Testament 
cities, including Ephesus. The endeavor to make use of material from 
these buy lead, to be sure, to quite useless and irrelevant applications. 
A recent Commentary on the epistle to the Ephesians devotes consider- 
able ipaCc to descriptions and pictures of Ephesus, but even arid* from 
the fact that some of the oldest manuscript* omit the words N m 
Ephena* " (M), there is nothing whatever in the epistle which has any 
particular boil reference. More pertinent, as on illustration of the 
* middle wall of partition’' between Jew and Gentile [Si: 14)„ is the 
imeripliCin found by Clermont -Gann can in 1H71 at Jrm^lrnt, warning 
Gentibea oh pain of death to keep out of the inner court of the temple. 
Part of another copy Of this inscription was unearthed At Jerusalem a 
few years ago. Some commentators, to be SUIt h fed that in Ephesians 
3; 14 there is Ho- direct allusion to the barrier of the lemple T but in any 
ease the inscription illustrates the exclusive spirit which the pa*A*gt 
has m view, AIL agree that for the episode nf Acts 21 : £7 f I hr temple 
inscription is decidedly relevant. 

Expressions used in the Greek papyri illustrate many a pa&ogc in 
the Ne» Testament, quite apart from those which are actually captained 
or supplemented. A reference to " the tabic of the bid Scrapie" 
illustrate* Paul's contrast between the table of Ibe Lard and the table 
of demons (| Corinthians lb:91). llLustratiolli of Social customs in the 
papyri have a bearing an the New Testament comparable to the bear¬ 
ing of similar data In rutieifann tablets nn the custom* of Old Tcila- 
tncnl times. Formulae Uled in adoption and in the emancipation of 
slaves, for example, tllustralr Pauls uk nf these transactions a* symbol* 
of the Christian 1 ? salvation. Cobcm. noting the parallel with Gala liana 
5:1. give* a typical certificate nf emsndpalloo baled on one of the 
Osyihynrhui papyri, ending with the words. ** I have here freed him 
unto this liberty wherewith I have made him fr« w (CAD 5fi). The 
fact that papyrus letter* art commonly written in one hand and signed 



*70 


WHAT MIAJI THEBE STORES? 


til 1K-J) 


in another. according to Ihe com won practice of dictating t a a scribe, 
gives point ta Pnufs statement ip Gn Lilians 6:11 that he has written 
to tie Ga la tinin- m his own hand. 

Two passages in the hook of R ^ flat iiji n may serve to include our 
discussion of anrheislogind ill u lira Lmn* of ihe Bible, The cryptic num¬ 
ber of Ihc bf bjI " (19:17 fjj t? baaed on tie custom of using the letters 
of the Alphabet u mimerab* which makes it possible b add Up the 
numerical values of the Ic-Her* in a name and use the lota] ui mysteri- 
CU» symbol for the name itself. Attempt* to solve tie " number \>f the 
beoittm this hABis with the Greek alphabet hove not been successful, 
but the Hrhrr* Alphabet provides the most probable solution, Tht 
numerical values of the name Nero C»mr P written in Hebrew frith a 
BlighL and quite ponibie irregularity. add up to Illustrations of 

this use of numben. are abundant in literary sources* and archeology 
dees not have to be called m U> demonstrate it. An a musing iJlilAtra- 
tkih. however, is furnished by a leMrflft scribbled on a w*H at Pompeii: 
* 1 love a girl whose number is 44S," ArrheoEogicaJ illustration or another 
passage is afforded by a coin of the rmperor Vespasian. which represents 
Rome as a woman seated on the seven hilU of the city. Thil )■ probably 
the conception hack of Revelation 1T:D (cp. vcr« I&L 

183- By orientation, by explanation, and by illuaLralien archeology 
help* ltj to understand thy Bible, What helps us to understand it helps 
also to appreciate it- Until It is understood it cannot be evaluated 
With the better understanding which archeology thui gives us, we are 
in « belter position to ask whether the Bible is true and worthy of oUf 
acceptance and admiration. Having therefore considered the various 
ways in which archeological discoveries have illuminated the meaning 
of the Bible, we ifr no# ready to turn to questions regarding its truth 
and value. 

At several points In the discussion hitherto it ha* been Ruled, that 
problems regarding the truth of the Bible arc raised by some 1 of our 
archrolngkal evidence. Certain questions of Lhis sort have hern men¬ 
tioned and rrserved for further treatment. They and other* like them 
must be conaide-pfil before wr can come to grips with the qbrltwn of 
what archeology proves, regarding the truth and nluf of the Bible, 

The most complicated and puriling problems it? tbo« connected 
with Ihr conquest and Kttlement of the Promised Land, From the point 
of view of chronology these have been discussed as fully as Use limits 
of this volume will ilbw. We Arc now concerned with the difficulties 
ha fitting the archeological discoveries and the biblical narta lives 


lit ] H3-I i E3LFUPATfOil f ILLUATlLATIOH. AKiJ CT.tLL'ATlOR S?1 

together. and the implications regarding the reliability of t bt Bibfe- 
Sq complicated have that problems become in ittcenl ywi that wf 
ii reminded of the whimsical statement of Chira: *' Up to i few years 
ago wf knew all about ancient history " (CWC 9&J. 

1B4, The discovery of lhe A mama letters j[§ Tl) seemed to offer 
immediate cnhtcJnporary aLlestalion to Lhe Hebrew conquest, but to fit 
tbrm into |hr biblical itoty ii not po easy iu it Appears at fint right. 
If the invasion of thr Itabirn irflcelrd in these Irltem i* the conquest 
ted by Joshua, a* many scholars iliM believe, the strong evidence of a 
later exodus and conquest will compel in Lo Lhe drastic eourar of sepanal- 
ing Joshua from the Aim] conquest and putting him a century or more 
earlier than Moot* as W done by Meek (MH04Sf) and QLnutead 
(OHF But ih the Bible Joshua is definitely connected both 

with MoSCs and with the conquest of the very cities shown by tsca- 
vatirtn to have fallen in thr thirteenth century (Joshua LO). On the 
other hand, tfi equate the Habiru invasion with the accounts or Jacob 
and hts marriages leaves a long gap between Abraham usd Jacob, and 
goes counter to the indications connecting Jacob and Joseph with tb^ 
Hyksoe 1’§ 57), To make confusion worse confounded we have the 
evidence that Jericho fell before the Israelite* could have passed around 
Edom and through M(*b Id the Jordan, and that Ai had been in ruina 
for half a millenium when Jmeho waa destroyed (S GO). 

No wonder such an eminent Old Tyumenl scholar as Marlin Noth 
throws up his hands and declares {FJB 1033), pp, ?4D) that the iLoty 
of the conquest in lhe Bible is merely a collection of legends concern¬ 
ing tribal heroes, combined with aclinlogical stories (it, stefirs told 
to explain known facts, like “how the leopard got his sputa/* or " how 
the rabbit Irwl hU tail "). If that be so, it is easy Lo see that a eyrie of 
Clorifw regard in m a hen? of the southern tribes* Moses, and another 
cycle about n nnj-t.hrrn hexo P Joohuu. tn^ht be combined after the 
Iribcs were united. »nd the dominance of the southern group might 
find expression in the re presen la t km of Joshua *a attendant and suc¬ 
cessor to Moses. Ed accord with some such view wuishl be the fact, 
long recognised by Old Testament scholarship, that the book of Joshua 
and the first chapter of the book of Judges preserve different traditions 
which cannot lie wholly rrfoDciled. 

For a criUcal examination of Noth' 1 # position the reader may be 
rrfrired to a recent article by H Albright (BASOIt No, 74, pp. II ff> 
Here we must be content with a very brief statement. The Habiru of 
the Amama letters, who came into Palestine from the northeast* doubt 1 


STt 


tfl IFMr-il 


Iph included. with other groups* rotne of the anrt-stors of the 

Israelites. Thr.-if settled in the- cHitra! highlaBds, wh*re fortified cities 
Were few uJ fu between. They were not, however, the tribes who 
ftcaped from Egypt under Mc^y 1 ?, nor is there any strong region L> 
connect Jothujl with Ehetn. Few scholar! accept Olfmtcad 1 * identifi¬ 
cation of Joshua with * certain fuhuia or Washuva iumrij m one of 
the Amtnii tablets (OHF 117). On the other hand, the destruction of 
Jericho in the fourteenth century may b*vc letn their work, though 
nnt mentioned in the Araarna bltm. In that cue ft la wrongly attri- 
b tiled to Jushun in the Bibb. 1 

The son* of Jacob in Egypt betonprd in An eariirf group, descendants 
of Abfthtm. who bid come into Palestine during thr Middle Bronze 
Age Whelher they were *11 of the one tribe of Levi f MHO 33 1) or 
bduded several tribal groU|» H at present uncertain. Under the leader¬ 
ship of Mold they left Egypt during the thirteenth century. In what 
phartoV* reign this happened we arc unable to lelk it may have been 
Rameaes II, but hardly Memeptah. In the wildctnes* south of Pales- 
line, where the Covenant was established, the newcomers from Egypt 
may have formed a CAnfedetWcy with other tribes living in the region. 
.Archeology «n give us no information on that point, imt on the ques¬ 
tion whether apy of them succeeded in entering PflJ*rstbi.fr from the 
south. In any case some if not aJJ pf them made the circuit of Edom 
aud conquered tbu Anodic kingdom of Sihon to Ihe north cf Modb, 
trussing into Palestine in the Utter part of the thirteen Lh century. 

l&S Prom here un the trail i-s even leea dear. The peculiar problem 
of the conquest of Ai h more dtfEctllt for Lhe modefti escgrlo than i| 
wo for the children of IwmI The *lory of the city 1 * capture by the 
Stratagem of * feigned retreat (Joshua H} fit* perfectly the actual arlu- 
ation of AI, as the writer has verified on the spot with the help of 
Garetafig's dfH description (GJJ Sure- then, however, the 

excavation of the site ha* shown that there vis no city el that place 
in the thirteenth century, and the ilory can certainly nol be put back 
to the nin^lrthlli century, nor brought down to the twelfth, 

Four solution* may be regarded u possible. (1) The most radical 
k to say* with Noth, that the story u simply an aeLiqJogic*l legcnd r 
explaining how the place catne to be in ruins and to receive the name 
* Bijin,' which i* the meaning of Ai in Hebrew. Equally radical, 

1 Fw Wm! duMUiiuii rJ lb BilHJfl fifoblrm pn Hibmr <l7wL.it Cdlw A TTU_d ] 3 Sit 

AffT^ES «#d EM. WJl; fF.Q |*« (0+t PASOR S‘d 77, p^i et | uvA Mb 1* 

pp. »-*■ 


rtlflJS 


EXFM^TIUN, tLLtTiTUTIOei, 1NE EVALUATION 


*» 


though atilt barely pouibk pending further in vts£iga thin of the ait*, 
b thhypothesis that there actually a city ihtrr. even though no 
Irtft of it wii Found in the cxnviLion. (3) More reasonable n the 
explanation offered by Plibf Vincent (BB 1B37, pp. 33J-tifl)» that the 
Inhabitant* of Bethel had merely an outpost at Ai of iilch modest 
proportions and tent pen ry nut tire that (I left remain* to l*tr*y 
its uiatenH tn the ucivibr. In thit case. however, no^ the- story u 
we have it presuppom an inhabited city, wc must postulate some modi¬ 
fication by later narrators who did not understand the actual aituation. 
(4) More probable than any of these three theories is the view of 
Albright, that the tradition represented by the account in Joshua S 
referred originally to the capture of Bethel in the thirteenth century 
so), but that the aetkdogkaJ mtereit In the ruin* of Ai caused the 
tradition t* be attached tn this atm instead «f B*Uir] (BASOR No. 74. 
pp. 16 F), For one primary purpose it is significant that any solution 
of the problem which do** net dn vicilenee In the archeological evi¬ 
dence must presuppose some uuhistorical dement in the biblical account 
as we have it, while on the other band to doobt that there wan any 
historical basis for the story is quite unjustified. 

Certainly Bethel fell at some time in the thirteenth century 1 , and 
great was the fall of it. The account of it# capture in J&dgci 1 
undoubtedly refers to thb event, whatever may he tm= of Joshua 6- 
Jfi this twe the exploit is Out attributed to the united tribes under 
Jloibm, but In the “ hou«r of Joseph/* i. e_ the tribes of Ephraim and 
Maniswh Earlier in the name chapter Othnicl. Caleb's nephew, is 
said tn have captured Debir (Kmatb^Bepkf) h which in Joshua IP h 
I ncluded among the cities captured by Joshua. How these facts are to 
be explained, bow the course of the conquest h to be traced- and how 
the relations between the tribea are In be conceived, are queSlions oti 
which archeology can shed m light, except as Jt furnishes a ehrtifto- 
togical framework by deterinmiiag the approximate date when each 
city was destroyed. TV archeological evidence in our possession thus 
far permits several hypotheses 

On the basis of the biblical data it seems most tikdy that the H house 
of Joseph " represented the descendmtiLi of the Hahiru who bad settled 
in the central highlands in the Amaraa period hut had not occupied 
the cities. The conquest of Laehish and Kinath-scpher must theta have 
been accomplished at about the same time II the capture of Bethel, 
but probably by a different tribal group. Joshua's part in the conquest 
remains a problem, but here archeology docs not help ua The writer 



WHAT MKAP TJtteE RTCi-NU?' 




ill IH^T} 


can s« no Bound! reason to connect him with the. H*banj T or lx> separate 
him fram the event* of Lhc thirteenth century. 

ISfi. Other prubtfmi fiiji L d by ATthcobjjirftl evidence In coDfl^tloti 
m\h the conquest of Canaan are leas various. The references to Apini 
in Egypt, not only under ^ti T and B-Ameses U hut even as. kit sj the 
of Rintr ^i OI And iv, do not ncccimfly refer to Ihr Israelites 
before the eiriduThe term. like H&bJru,, need nol be ^-extensive 
v[ih the nunc Hi brew u used in the Bible. If ftmrlite* m referred to, 
they may Lave been later immigrant or captive*, or possibly dcscrh 
iknti of Israelites who did not leavr Egypt with Mim* 

Some historians have had difficulty with the Israel stelr of M^mep- 
teh, which ahowi that Iwiel suffered a defeat at the hand* of Mcrnrjt- 
uh about 1*30 B.C. On (he assumption lhat Rameseji f| waa the 
pharaoh of the- oppresikin and MfflKptmh the pharaoh of the rxrxfLU. 
thii seemed to prove that JarapE was already in Palestine when they 
ahtiulit have been at Ell maadering in the wiEchrfl^, Instead of coft> 
eluding that the exodu* had been dated too hie, scholars mc-l th*- 
difficulty by supposing that only a part or the people of Israel had 
gone into Egypt and that Ihr stele referred to the rot, who had never 
left Fkteatine, That the tradition of the adjourn ha Egypt and the exodus 
hi-bnga properly to a limited group is quite probable on other grounds, 
but if our ronelunion regarding the dale of the conquest (£«]) is 
correct, all (k tribes may have been in Canaan before Ifc*}. The 
Complete fedora Cton. including I hr northern tribes, may have taken 
pWr somewhat kler, though It must Lave bem accomplished Isefore 
the lifnc of the Ming of Deborah (Judges A} 4 

I0T. A special class. of problems arbes where v« have contemporary 
leeords of i-venls which are narrated in the Bible. We have found that 
these records rKplain,, supplement and illustrate the biblical lerL and 
w* shall see lltat a I many points they eon Arm ill in some instances, 
however, they raise questions regarding its accuracy. A good example 
“ th * * Mwbrt* Stone 1 of Metha, the Moabite king in the time of 
A hah. Before reaching the Louvre, where it is now, ibis stone had a 
romantic scries of adventures. When St was Jotmd in Transjordan in 
Igdflp the Arabs, seeing Lhat it was highly valued by the Europeans 
but not knowing why, shattered il to bits by bearing Et with fire and 
throwing cold water on it, to prevent »U being taken from the country 
Fortunately a copy anil a H Mjtieeic 1 had been made before thiv happened, 
and they HOW hang Iwsidc it in Paris. By thrir aid such pieces as could 


(I It?) EXPUXATIOW, TLLL’ffniATIOStf, asp EVaLLIjitios S7 J 

hr salvaged were fitted together and tic remaiodet of the inscription 
duplicated in piaster, so that the slone stihd* in tie Louvre 

h partly tic original .inti parity & plaster recoils tract iuh. 

The inscription U largely concerned with a series of triumphs over 
JjraeL In 2 Kinfii S Mrsha Is railed * " ihcep-masti-r,' 1 and it is said 
list he (uid a krge annual tribute to Ahab in wool After the death 
of Ahab. the account continue^ Misha rebelled, pud a punitive expedi¬ 
tion against him was marie by Jehoram of f&mel together with Jehoa- 
haphat at Judah and the king of Edom. With the aid of the prophet 
Klisha and a providential and my pterions inundation the allies infilled 
s great defeat on the Moabite icing and destroyed the city of Kir- 
hareirlh. Of nJJ thii Mesha's inscription says nothing, In fact, tie 
Hebrew and Moabite accounts both repQlt vktm ie* hut no dcfcats. 
For any jirryt.n who ha* read war-bulletm i from both sides of any 
conflict tiufl discrepancy is tiol hard to understand. Chjera remarks 
regarding ancient, royal inscriptions in generafc that their writer* Wrote 
bUtory as modem statesmen do (CWC lOOf). 

Thcw are. ulhrr difficulties, however. Masha my* that Israel eon- 
irolird Moab fur forty years, including part of the reign of Omri and 
half Of the reign of his son, Le. Ahab, According to the Bible the whole 
reign* of Omri and Ahab together occupied only thiriyriour yearn. 
(1 King* 10:S3. 39). Media's. "fatty years" may mean merely H a 
fotag time,” but even ao he says that he “looked at ,F Omri*s sort (Le. 
triumphed over him H jm often in Old Testament Hebrew) , bl and Israel 
perkhed an eternal perishing, H while avoiding to III* biblical account 
Mohl did not revolt until after Ahab'i death. 

Many scholars believe that Mesha refer* nut to Ahab but to his iqq 
J ehr>r*tn. and that the defeat he claims is the- one cryptically suggest*! 
by the closing mw of 2 Kings % r which states that after Mesha in 
despair had offered his own sou u n burnt offering* u there was great 
indignation against Israel, and they departed from him and returned 
lo their own land." But Mesha rertJUoiy knew what kiugs reigned in 
IsnieL during hi* own lifetime, and he would hardly speak only of 
Omri and hLs son in ref effing to events in the reign of Jehoram. To the 
present writer it nerms more likely, though certainty is out of the 
question, that Mcsha* Inscription was made before the campaign of 
Jehoram and Jrhu-.haphat, when Mont's star Waa In the ascendant 
It U possible, of course, that Uirte is some mil late in the biblical 
narrative, but tbe differences between the two accounts are not such 
as to prove I his. 


WWT MF-l ^ TStfcMj stoSo? 


<1 IHAI 


amj 

183. Similar pruUvtru iriir Sow mad then *rhrn Lk biblical narm- 
t-Uv* mid the Assyrian inscription* Aft WTnparal* The question of 
Sennacherib's campaign or cam|* Igti« in Judah m connection with 
a KlCga 13-10 may be mmlkmcd m an example (BAB *70 IF). 
WffwiiPW of this son are ififliuftlrml in the New Testament also, 
e g Mir question of the Nflbilittu etbnareh at Damaicire it Lhe time 
of haul's oobvmkm (§08). Some of these problem* Can be wived, 
others are jjaredithtr with taur present knowledge. For our purpose It b 
unnecessary to revii-w any Store of them, since the ones already dk- 
cuwd make dear the general iittia.lion. It la quite evident that arrhe- 
HdNagcv his not confirmed the detatb of biblkal biliary step by step, as 
often claimed, but has actually raised no! 1 few difficult question* 
regarding the ace-tinny of the Bible, and at least acme of them, like the 
problem of Ai. <inrut be solved without denying the validity either of 
the archmlogical idener or <4 th* 1 biblical narrative. 

Not is that all. In some ease* tfwrre can be no question as to which 
tcitinwuy must be rejected. The evidence ii lo clear and ii>Jaiputable 
that a fair judgr must regard it &a definitely refuting and correcting 
statements in llir Bible. Of eourac not every alleged case of such 
refutation will hold water. Once more we musl sound the warning 
aga rns E mistaking interpretation for fact. An ewettent and important 
Umk> lo which reference tuts often heed made in these pages, adrrb 
that the picture in I Samuel 7 of a complete rennncuiLain of ti*ali*ro 
at Mbpali u refuted by the results of escalation on ik &iLe. Ob 
examination this statement proves to be based on decidedly questionable 
interpret! Hum af kth biblical and areheobgiciJ data. In the Gnt 
place, the narrative does not imply anything more thnrouglfcqtoing or 
Jwrminen t than the many similar acts of repontmee and reform in the 
book of Judge*, which were quite regularly followed sooner or later by 
apostasy. As regards the archer logical evident# <d a continuance df 
pagan worship at Mizpah, it conslsti of a building which may or may 
nnt have been a temple of Azhtart, at a site which may or may fujl 
have been Mixpoh (§ 02). 

Somelimcs what for a lime seem* to be proof pf an error ib the 
Bible Is later met by further evidence, Cuneiform records prove that 
the last rukr of the Neo-Baby loo an empire m Nabnnaid. The book 
of Hhuiii'L however, makes BeMiaiiar the king at the time of the fall 



*77 


(If ISM) KXPUINATION- iLLL’antATIOM, Aim IffiLL'iTICfW 

of Babylon (Daniel £) . Hie solution of Ibis apparent dkcfrpeinry_ 

apparent when Evidence was found showing that during tin? tat part 
*r Ms frigti Nabunaid liv*d ja Arabia and Ml the admmisLratkm of 
the government at Babylon In hi* son. ftelshiiur (It P Dougherty, 
XnhanidtiM tmd BtULi^ar, IM&), 

There are other ea*r*. however, which cannot be explained or dis- 
of in tlui way. We have Kts tbit the Philistines eurne into 
™?™ ™ ******** «* ^e Early Iron Age. nn| far from 1*10 

B.€. f§ 73). It Li quite hnprks^ble tn date Abraham and 1™: as r atr 
" *■£<_£* represent! both as having dryings with 

the Philistines and their king, Ahimdeeh (Geocais *I:SS-S*; Sfl-I-Sa) 
may hazard a Jfttewj as to how (his happened. Abimdeeh t* not n 
Phdislme name but Canumte, anil id chapter *1 the only reference 
1* tbe Philistines H the Statement that Abimelech and his ohkf of *Uff 
“ returned into the land of the Phillatmrs," Thi* may mean merely 
the land which w** known by that name in the writer a day, pretedady 
as we. by a convenient and harmless acmchmnkm. apeak of the Israelite 
Cdnqucat of Palestine, The writir of the story m chapter i6. writing 
probably at * somewhat later time, simply earned the anachronism 
fuitb^ assuming that B king of Gcnr and hh subject! must ha^ 
been Philistines in Abraham's days u m his owr>- At any rate, however 
tbe ftuslike may have come about, it U Undoubtedly a mistake. 

One more example* chosen from a different part of (he Old Testa¬ 
ment, will be sufficient. The book of Daniel has been vindicated as 
regards VMshuur, but all the industry and ingenuity of devoted 
scholars cannot justify other dements m its version of history The 
conqueror or Babylon It called Darius the Mode («;»; fc| ; n i) L nm | 
the schEme of wprid empires outlined in the visions of Daniel implies a 
distinet empire of the Me?des between the Nee-Babylonia h and the 
Persian empire. Archeological evidence proves conclusively that the 
h»-BtbyIonian empire was overthrown by Cynjt, the founder of the 
Persian empire, and the first Darius came Hot before but after form. 
Conservative commentators have ■*( riven manfully to account for ihrse 
facts. Darius the Medc has been identified wdlh various men of other 
names, but to no avail, A judicious and thorough study by ft. H 
Howtey (RDM) may be commended to any who wish to look further 
us to this matter. 

ISO, TW nfKitife uperti of our main problem have b ttn eon 
before looking fur positive confirmation of anything in tie Bible 
m order In nmkc dear the Emit, within which such confirmation might 


WHAT MF-A'V tr— ATOJffa? 


id imm 


S78 


be expected. Tfe* few examples giw» show plainly that we cannot 
aay the statement# of ihc Bible are confirmed a I every point. We can¬ 
not my that every fact discovered fits into the *iory perfectly. To 
s*y nifb things and believe them in tie face of even the few bits of 
evidence that have been presented here would require a bind dopniliim 
lil(e that of a SonmrilaD at Nablus who told a visitor that hit Geriritn 
was the highest mountain m the world, The visitor tunned many great 
mountain' of other lands, but the Samaritan refused to admit that they 
were higher than Mi Goriaim. Finally the visitor, pointing lt> ML 
Efcd across the vafck-y, aaiii " Right there before your eyes m Mt. Ebd, 
which i| higher than Gerixim." 

"Ah no," calmly replied the Samaritan, ia it k*fcs higher, hut it ean- 
nrtt bo—t>ecauu Mt* Gem is the highest mountain in the world" 

Whatever arehrologkwl corroboration of the Bible may he found, il 
must he borne in mind that there are also complicated prabl*™ and 
even direct contradiction in some eases. 

Having faced bjh! recognised Ihese difficult ie*, and having admitted. 
a_H sheer honesty demand*, that then- are si ate merits and stoma in lire 
Bibb 1 which cannot be reconciled with the course of event# disclosed 
by arehedogieal discoveries, we now must ash how deep the chasm ia 
between these two areai of knowledge regarding ancient history. 1 # 
there no truth at all in Lhc current claim that archeology corroborate* 
the biblical narrative*? Are the two picture* of the past baeically 
incompatible? Gt atr the differences merely aueh as alwayn mark tfw 
testimony of different witnesses, hone it and competent but not infallible? 

IPO. To see the situation dnrly we most distinguish two kinds or 
MnJfirmstbn, general and ipecific. General coEiliffifltkm is a mallet 
of compatibility without definite eumuboraGon oi particular point* 
Much of what has already been discus**! JU r aplanation and illustration 
tnay he regarded also as genera] confirmation. The picture fiU the f«mc; 
the melody and the accompaniment are hanaohHHis. The force of *nch 
evidence b cumulative. The mure we find that iUma in the picture 
of the past presented by the Bible, den though not directly attested, 
are compatible with *ha| wo know from archeology. the stronger is 
our impression nf genera] authenticity, Mere legend or fKtkm would 
Inevitably betray itself by aiaachtunifiTni and incongruities 

A great deal ul such general confirmation of the Bible ia at hand- 
Specific archeological « &■» that this or that event in the aton*# 
of the patriarch# actually occurred may hot be forthcoming, but lhc 
wcbl customs reflected by the stortei fit the patriarchal period; they 


Cl IK) nuDHUTSds* asu evaluatioh Ft# 

(dso fit the tegion front which the patriarchs are said to have came 
({ 17#). Thb if ^specialty significant because they do nol so well fit 
later periedi. The topographical pmuppcuilioiu of iht narrative! 
aim fit Use findings of archeology with respect to occupational history. 
The fourteen Lb chapter of Genesis is a striking iltstAIKf of this. Regarded 
with suapicion by many cn!ki h thU narrative has been shown by 
tojxigra plural research to be compatible with the situation in Trani- 
Jordan during the Middle Uranic Age in a way no Late write? could 
have devised. No known inscription records the tavukm of Trans¬ 
jordan by the four kings, but the suggested route of the invasion, south¬ 
ward from the region of Damascus along the de*ert‘s edge, corresponds 
io a Unc of Early Hrame and Middle Hronsi- Age rites of which a writer 
in the it on Age could ml have known (AAP 144). 

In the Sami.- way the personal names of biblical chulCtelH, Ihe names 
of tl)f deities of non-Israelite peoples, and the general picture of the 
cultural and religious background of thi history are tn accord with 
what lh Learned from archeobgical document*. The horse, which was 
brought into FaL-rsliitr in the rime of the llyksoa, is not mentioned in 
Ihe itorira of Ihe patriarch* (DMAS :L 3SB>, Graham and May bring 
out another interesting point in this connection' the stories of ihe 
earlier patriarchs make no reference to Ihe Cinlinitr fertility cult, 
which according to archeological indlailtoni »*a introduced to Pales¬ 
tine in the Hykso* period, between the lime of Abraham and the time 
of Joseph {% 1«). In Other words, references to Ihia cult in the Old 
Testament do not begin until the lime when it was actually established 
in the land fGMCC fl# f), 

The Story of Joseph and of Israel's sojourn in Egypt is a case of 
genera! compatibility without specific confirmation,. The Egyptian per- 
soiml names, it is true, do nol belong to the early ilium in which the 
Story is set, and the Egyptian 1 load cnlor * of the tale could bavs been 
added by any writer who had visited Egypt in any period. These facts, 
however, may be merely the result of such minor modifications as any 
story is likely to Utldrfgo in the course of transmission through many 
genera Lions, There ia pa specific archeological confirmation of any 
point in the whole story, but with the exceptions just noted it tiu into 
the general picture of Egypt in the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. The 
Egyptian name* which later appear in the tribe of Levi (1 SO). while 
Sol proving that the tribe had Uved ie Egypt, are certainly compatible 
with that idea. 

The expansion of commerce m the Early Iron and Middle Iron Ages 


4B0 WlUf Meas them jrtojskh? >n 

Corresponds t o what t h history of luul fmm the time of Submon 
ob would bd uh to rtjjccl. The nci¥ib» nt Mcftiddo. Sunuift. 
Opheh and elsewhere hive found it easy la illicit ihe various phaae* 
in the irdi«bjiKd history of tbir sites to p«naiu and events rccordt-d 
in Ihe Bible, Even though tfiejv is Hu definite enidcwi? fur may of these 
identification** and some of them have since proved to hr mis taken, 
the possibility of miking such connection* shows a geaeral ttunpali- 
biiily het™wft the biblical record* and the archeological facts which 
in Ihe aggregate am■ itsnI n almost la confirmation, The Liehhh Iftttri 
ogree with the book* of Kings aud Jeremiah m their language and m 
the social and political conditions which they rrfiect. What Jeremiah 
says about ihr worship of the queen of heaven [Jeremiah 7: IS; 44; IS ff) 
is not specifically confirmed by any special evidence but il agrees with 
all we know of Ihr persistent usr uf figurines i § 14 E) and with Ihe fact 
that in the Elephantine papyri of Ihe ntst century Vahwrh ii associated 
with pagan deities (£ 1 50) . 

In the New Testament also lUch general ctmftmtaiicm may be Seen 
At fiery turn. The situation pmupposed by the gospels is i|i general 
accord with archeological indie* liotH Sir William RjuLiay, vl is uid, 
became Convinced that the book of Acta must have been written m 
Tbe first century bemuse of its accord with what he knew of Ihe Roman 

provisoes. 

In the interests of accuracy it should be added that not all parti of 
Ihe Bible are alike n rcganLi the general confirmation with which we 
have been ilraling. - The in vei Ligation nf this mat ter m detail with 
reaped b> different books aud parts of bonks offer# a promising field 
for research,, la yet almost untouched. Many difficulties will be en¬ 
countered. but undoubtedly considerable differences will he found. In 
same cases those may help to solve problems of date and authorship. 

I Pi. In addition to all the general eonfi mutism afforded by Lhe fact 
that the Bible'a representations of lhe past are compatible with arche- 
dogical discoveries, there are also many cases of the specific confirma¬ 
tion of details. To sift out all the genuine instances from the m*0* of 
absurd and far-fetched, or ingenious and plausible but ill-founded 
ctamptes to be found in current publications would be a Herculean 
task, and a ihonkleos one. Instead of attempting it here, we shall 
confine tiUrscEvfi again to a few well established and typical viampies 

VFw cuaipkv K«m Bihfw«Ti rrmillj Lk*t ’■We MVt prpnwnls aamOtr 

dw TiDtonai dT Jm^MtiLry F*kvtwa. Lab* matUm* (iva ihr ipiiy, ip to tpeak “ » 
mtidrfij. iJms." wmedina 1 a the euIihbi eJ Uf GneH^BaaBU *wLi iJBjL } BOS, g] 3 ff_ 


ca nvf tit t m} 


ti my 


EIPU?lATIOM, [LLlSTlJirTOX, 4TO EKA&QATKHf 2£| 

Name* of citiw, uid ttHHitrifea which occur in earl*' nimtiva of 
tlio Ot.J TVrtammL ind in meli tists as the Liblr nf fwticHU in Genesis 
10 tad the descriptions of tribal boundaries in Jon Jit: 4 15-tl + occur 
Frequcn% in cuacLfami mupw idd in ihr |»ts of conquered cities left 
h > Egyptian And Ajwyrian ruler*, By Him means many topographical 
ilrtiila have !>een checked and verified. Where the identify of a site 
it wdJ established, the archeological evidence of its occupation*.! ha- 
tory often confirms specific details of biblical history. Shiloh has hem 
shown by excavation to have been unoccupied during the Late Brunet 
Affc, occupied in the Eariy Iron Arc, am) destroyed at about 1050 
®i C - “ required by the narrative* nf the Otct Testament 

Gibeah wu burned *t about the time indicated by Lde account in 
Judge* tfti. Samaria w«j built at a lime corresponding to the Mate- 
rntnl that Otnn established h as Hir capital of lh* unrlhtm kingdom, 
The examples of luch amfirroabon which might be given are almost 
innumerable. 

Thr Assyrian records, while explaining ami supple men tins the biblical 
narrmlivcB. also confirm them a! many points. Among other things 
they corroborate Thai M said in Lhe Bible regarding certain kings as 
liir conlefnporartcs of particular Assyrian emperors, References to 
Specific Events coincide repeatedly also. Aa Cluere. saya, the tablets 
confirm the Bible and the Bible also confirms the tablets fCWC 1 Ig},' 
So many eases nf Hus have appe&rcd already in other connection* that 
mote are hardly needed, but one may be mentioned. With Hie account 
of Elaxad's usurpation of the throne of Damascus m S Kings fi; 7-15 it ts 
int™iin R to compare the statement m an inscription of Shalmaneser 
1>, " Hmd, son of a nobody, seized the throne “ f BAB 45fl), 

For the dosing year* of the kingdom of Judah and the exile Baby¬ 
lonian document# offer confirmation of many items. The evidence 
bearing on Pharaoh Nccho'i campaign and his defeat at Canrhcmiah 
h« been noted (|le») L The devastation of Judah by NebuehadreW* 
Artnies k lunifut K many rites which were laid waste and not 
«*h?cup»ed (AAP 17J f>. More detailed evidence of tie two campaigns 
of Nebuchadrezzar m Judah hag now been found «l Lachish. Counts 
tions with particular perrons an established by the seals of Gedaliah 
Jeaxaniah. and others. 

An extraordinary instance of specific confirmation ha>. recently ootne 
to light m a Babylonian record. The mo*d book of Kings cods with 

1 Wi«, - • m-ll« *1 f=rtr the Blbk tbr <=*<*^*4 d™ 


at H4riiiJ]'i Iribunk U 


WHAT MIAS THKSF. RTOSE55 ? 


HII 


2fl2 

Ija* 5 taf?nirnl that Jehoiachhl, who had been takrP captive tfl Babylon 
iltcr Ntbu£fai4rfiMri firil conquest of Jrm»b[& P wu taken out of 
prison by Xrbuchadrextnrs nj^uor P Evil-Mfifod*cb. “ and be did cat 
bread before him continually the days of hb I dr, and his lUowanrc 
wui u continual allowance given him of the n daily eAI* 1 foe every 
day, alt the day* of his life" {it King* 25;2?-A3). hi wfnfi tablets Con- 
tALoing Ihe mrnti of person! to whom regular mbv#aliou« of gram i-ftd 
oil were given at the court of Babylon occurs the name of " Ya.uk in 
king of the land of YahuiT (published by Y Weldner m M&ngn 
Syrirtu ojferti a M. JM f)iLt*aud, vot, ii. IW 1 

ISt. Passing over at! lb* remaining portions of the- Old T«lamenL 
Tor which many cample of specific confirmation might be cited, we 
ntii’ find instances in the New Tt-stamenl u *‘rll. Hefrrence has been 
mud* 1 in an earlier chapter (| (fcS) to the difficulty formerly frit regard ■■ 
tug the eacdmrtil il the time of Jr-suV birth, which Luke says took 
place “ when Quirifitus was governor of Syria " (Luke lit) . I'mm liter¬ 
ary souim it appears that a census slid valuation were taken in 0 A. JX 
and that Qmriniua vu tepoCoj* in Syria at that time, Luke § statement 
therefore seemed to be At Few It 3# Jesus was bom in the reign of Hi rod 
the Great. A ptpynn published by the British Museum, however, 
show, that the ceOslii for the poU-tai w *4 madr it intervals of four¬ 
teen years, beginning as early as a lime during the yeart fi to !i B. i . 
I| was further shown by inscription* that QuirmUU was lel the Kast 
and mjiy have .*rved as trains during the lifetime of Hercni also 
(BAB Lukes accuracy has been cnllrtl in iiuestion also wilh 

regard to the statement that Lysauia# tetrareh of Abilene when 
the word nf God came to John in the wilderness (Lult* S:If) h for 
Lyianiaa, tetrareh of Abikne* died in $4 B, C- Archeology P however, 
hm* again come to the defense of the gOflrpel An iiucriptMD ibowi that 
tHfre was another and liter Lysiniu of Abilene* though his exact dales 
are net attested. 

The book of Acta has received th.* support of archttdogy at several 
points. Giltio's prwonsullhip of Achnea ft3:12) has been not only 
confirmed hut approximately dated by an mscriplim (| 182) The use 
of special terms, especially the 1 politareh k at Thessalonioi (17:A f) 
uLfi tht J asiarch * at Ephesus (1*:S1), has been suthmtittited. That 
examples of specific confirmation IR found especially Ifi the writings of 

* [ b*« ben uubk mem* a «V? of thia vwh$a*, *rh*ih mppmrally Ivm flat n*>^d 

raunfm 1 kri .c«ajftE m wnm in t** VU p JW* 

I mi bdpbEid fe P«f AJLfiffcE Kfad Dr. A. ftf ihn ™f*f«** 


<ll I W-4J UPLAXmOS. ILLUSTILATSON, KSV fl ALl^TlOS ^ 

Luke may be explained by the fact tint he elope itnon* the evaBgelLiti 
take* pains to connect his qintlivu with secular history. 

IPS. With iU this there is nothing bearing directly cm the otic 
historical question which we have found to be of real religious import. 
the question of the historicity ol JeaUI (§U). In the nature of the 
case the only archeological 1 evidence in he apwUti for such a life as 
his would be the krad which we have called general confirmation, In 
this respect there J fro cause for disappointment. The background of 
Jesus' life u represented or assumed in the gospels corresponds entirely 
to the picture which we get from archeology, Little details like the 
personal names on Jewish ossuaries have lieeft mentioned. An ossuary 
published a few yean ago actually bore the name “ Jesus un of Joseph * 
in Aramaic. In Spite of Some temporary eacLlement at this discovery, 
it Was sdob realised that nothing more Vf ft » proved by It than wkat 
had bog been known. Both names, JeaUs and Joseph, were as familiar 
and perhaps almoit as common in Pkicatin* as William and Henry are 
in America. This very fact is one small Item in the general accuracy 
of the whole picture. The faith of the church regarding Jesus and it* 
veneration for him did net lead to alterations of the story making it 
archeofogically hht- A cult-legend or a Christ-ltiytb. later fashioned 
into the semblance of a biography, could never have achieved itich 
authenticity. 

More specific confirmation of the facts of Jrsita" life nr even of his 
existence cannot be tapeeiecL H Jesus had choiCS thi: way of revolu¬ 
tion and sdacd the throne, if even for a short time he had withstood 
the Roman legions and set up an earthly kingdom, coins and inscrip¬ 
tions might be found to attest the tragedy of his success A wandering 
preacher .who writes no books, erects no buildings, lets up no organized 
institutions, but leaves Id Caesar what is Cacsaris. seeking only Fits 
Father's kingdom, and who commits his cam* to * few po-v fishermen 
to cany OH by word of mouth, leaves Ito coins hearing bis image and 
superscription. Herod'* great reign, ha* left its testimony in tumbled 
columns and crumbling foundation* Rome's might H witnessed by 
fallen milestone* half buried in the earth. The beginning of Christianity 
has no such archeological pnoot JcsUa has no monument but hi* 
churth, 

104. One more important question remain* for discuirioft. Tb* great 
mm of comparative material which *tah«lagy bet provided for the 
Bible student not only affords explanation, supplementary information. 


284 


WIIaT mux thl'j; 


tl 1MJ 


Kin^lim^h correction, incl ofUn confirmation; it ihowi 
pver inJ ovrr again eliSM- similarities twlwwn the BiDr and whnt wu 
known among other people*. Repeatedly the qUrstion of dependence 
and origin arises and with it the question, -vital tor Christian faith, 
whether and wherein the Bible has any Oftgiutttj. Ho clalbfl would 
not be ii mere repetition of whit had oflep been said before If the 
writers vm initrtld in any «ue, they must hive done 

murr than borrow Ucm from the Babylonians, Egyptian*, and Canaan- 
itfi. Those who have most to «y ohnut archeological confirmation of 
like Bible often furgvt that aixhrplogical discoveries were responsible 
for the theory of Pan-Baby Iniiiflffl. which attributed almost everything 
in the Bible Id Babylonian Influence. That theory i s Ho* out moded, 
but the TitU w hich gave rite |o it rtffllilL if ore recent ducoverkn 
have only complicated the problem* which must be recognised and 
squarely IftFl- 

One of the first things to ride this question wai the dirtwny of 
the Babylonian atorie* of tmlbn and the flood. The** have now hern 
known so long and havr been so often discussed that a few words hen 1 
may bo regarded as sufSc.ien'L The differences between the Hebrew and 
Ha by Ionian accounts of creation Afr even giro ter than the resemblancC*. 
\S here the lint chapter of Gened* teds □* oi« God who said, * 1*1 
there be . . . . K and it was so, th= Babylonian story tdl* of jealousy 
and strife aJitang many deltJCa, with a battle between the chief of the 
gods and a monster aa Ult central act of creation. At the same time 
there ii a rtwmblnuce Ift general framework which clearly indicates 
n\ Ii-j.aL a common background. The Hebrew account is decidedly mcKfV 
advanced theologically. It is closer lo philosophy than il Is to mythology. 
In general one may aay that the story ii a theological refinement 
of an ancient myth related to that of the BabyloniaEU What the venlcr 
hg* done is to enprasj the monotheistic faith of Israel in torm^ of the 
world-view of hii day, the only terms which could *ny meaning 

for him or hi* readers. So13t element* in this world-view, it may • 1 * 
remarked, ire perhaps more Egyptian than Babylonian 

Of rauttt what we have to compare is not one Hebrew and one 
Babylonian account There are several *ers*onj of the Babylonian 
story, and in Genesis we have not one but two amounts of creation 
There is no such close Babylonian parallel to the aeoontit in Genesn 
i AS there ii for the on* given h the first chapter, though various 
elements In the story of the garden of Eden am paralleled bore and 
there in cuneiform sources. 


(II I EM-1 ^ E3tFUS*m!« H ILLl^mnDS, ASD EVALUATION ^ 

Id addition Lo the two creation stories la Grltem there are allusion* 
here and there in the Old Testament to A myth (if a primordial combat 
between Tahweh and ■ dragon (Job *S: Sit: F*alm 74 : 14 ', Isaiah 27 ; l) T 
ThU clement in the Babylon in ft myth was therefore not wholly iiftkitown 
to the Hebrews, even though no traces of it are lo be l*en in Genesis 
1_ We have noted already the conlurU hete with the poems found at 
Raa Sbnmrah l£ 1 W). From them It is clear Gist even if the first 
Hebrews had no cosmogony of their own. they did not have to go to 
Babylon for one. Evidently the Canaanites had their own mythi, 
though we cannot assume that eiictlj the name ides* represented at 
Rjis Shamruh were held also in Palestine. 

The cloHfl known parallel to the biblical Story of the flood is still 
the Babylutmii myth, of which aevml versions are extant from different 
periods. Her* lh* same resemblance in general framework is evident 
bj in the itwy of creation, with the same striking difference in thfolog- 
ical conceptions. This it well illustrated by the statement that when 
Utnapishlim, the Babylonian eoiinlerpart of So*h, came out of his 
ark and offered a sacridc*, the gods cluttered about H like flies, Again 
there it little reason to believe that lh* Hebrews derived their ideas 
directly from the Babylonians, but that both Babylonian and Hebrew 
accounts go hack ultimately to A common origin can hardly b* qilM- 
tboned. Those for whom the account. in the BFbk u a record of actual 
event) are free to sty that the inspired Hebrew narrative preserves 
the true itory of what happened, while tire Babylonian story is a corrupt 
and degenerate iwnion. 

Echoes of other mythological conceptions, like the seal of God in the 
recesses of the north (F*alm Isaiah HrlSi Ezekiel 1 : 4 ), are 

heard in the Bible. Here loo there are notable pAndkdtt in the Has 
Shammh poems (} 181 }. fft view of the intiquHy of th*** poms it 
is a sinking fact that lh* allusions in the Old TestKmest are ail in late 
aftd poetic books, id which the highest religious conceptions are expressed 
(RB 10S7 r p. 548 ) . They do hnL therefore, show a con Lamina t ion 
of Hebrew failh by Canaanite influence, but rather a stage in the 
development of Old Testament TtUfHa in which primitive pagan ideas 
could be u red without fear of mUunderetanding, Such allusion* to early 
myths are comparable in significance to the Puritan MiHoffh alluibfl* 
to classical mythology, 

IflO, Before discussing the bearing of these facts on lh* truth and 
value of the B&k w* must consider other connection* between I he 
Bible and older sources from Other nation*. Parallels between the Old 


What ueijt 


JTOjrpa^ 


HWt 


iSd 

TciLmucut [awi aftd Ihc Code of IlimmLinbi h&Vf btcfl baled in con¬ 
nection with tie fecil] «»d moral ideiia of the undent »*r Eiut in 
general £§ 1 S4i Here, tl in the eaie of the flood end creation ftonn, 
the ctjUUm.'Ej ire m clou and obvious that Hebrew lepislaliop |uu 
appeared to some u a mere jeleelkm and adaptation of Babylonian 
laws. Clo5?f study Kan JisddMHJ many differrnces, Ai »c Live seen, 
the Babylonian jyatcfti wou more complex tad in *ome Viyi mote 
advanced than [he Hebrew 

The parallels arc found chiefly in the Boob of the Covenant (£vdui 
19), which consists of 4 vH*S of law* in groups of five, each 
j^roup headed hy a Jaw closely rreambling on* i& the Code of Ham¬ 
murabi. Waterman, and CHnutcad have concluded that the Book of the 
Covenant was really * Catuuinitc code which. was adopted by the 
Israelite* after Lbe conquest (AJSL 10*1 t pp. 5G .fl; OHP chap. S). 
Thai the Inith is not quite » simple U 4 town by Alt's recent study of 
the origins of Hebrew law, which distinguish*! fcladhc and Canianitc 
law# in the Qld Tctlafnent on the basis of fora and content (AUR). 
Since ihc Aasyiian and HiUiU codes reveal a remarkably uniform type 
of legislation throughout weslem Asia in the second millennium Ek C-, it 
is reasonable b suppose that the CanunTtes were acquainted with the 
main features of the prevailing system and merely adapted these to 
the need* of their own situation- The Hebrews then took over and 
resdiptcd what they found Useful in the Canaanite ay item, combining 
it with their own tribal and national ttfalotiii and the taws given by 
Mow** 

However ihc pracese be eunreived. it it clear that the lawx of the 
Old Testament were nol all delivered directly from heaved to Mows 
on Ml. Sinai. In this Connection it is worthy of note that Hammurabi 
cilifiB to have received his laws from the sun-giid Shiraash. Chiera 
slyly observes that everybody doubtlen knew they were the same old 
laws, but what Hhamoih gave Hammurabi waa the wisdom to idect 
the heat laws and make a code that was fair to lit (CWC 77). 

Contacts between Hebrew ritual and the practice* of other peoples 
have been noted at an earlier point in our discussion £j 154), II was 
there obretved that direct borrowing from one or another rton-Iinehle 
nation was ten likely oil the whole than a primitive Semitic heritage 
■hared by Canaaniles. Arabs, and Hcbrewa. Thit certain details of the 

* M. PiTk! rbe caln RiAitMfibi eh ejJd fq4uwt]b( tot fa WcUbriMSinpRi b 
EmdBa ,r wpftfilid fraIB tvdicknfl tw ItSflj sjrih.rnLE^ Us* 

prnlWi brtiw j- irxlii* fctud ihc Cdc of talL±r*JbH tftd fanmm. 4J1T (W JrL>tiCHllbiV 


(IV t&Si-fl: E&FLASJlTIOS, 1LLVSTMT1CN. A^tS EYAtUATIO?* ^ 

ritual or witflin festreaJs may have b*rn developed idler the conquest 
under Canaan'iLt or even Assyrian Influence is of Course quite pouible. 

The difference between what Israel received fro m her neighbor* and 
* JaAt was her mm con Lribution b well ittiutimted % prophecy, the moal 
distinctive and eharortorbtic feature of IM'rew religion It is clear 
from ihr Old Testa Eh* td lliAl there Were prophets in other religion* 
The prophets of Rua! are referred to several tfm*i (] Kings l#;3P r fifi, 
£$. +0i g Kings Iflrlih Irremkh £:,&). Iti view of tire Phoenician con¬ 
nection;' of JotebcTl Baal, it Is raped*] k intcrealing to find early 
archeological ffrfdeOH of prophecy in Phoenicia, The atwy of Wepamon, 
contained in an Egyptian papyrus, u already noted in connection 
with the general cultural background or Old Teitamlent history, trill 
of a person it the court of the king of By bios, at about I] 00 Jj r C P+ who 
in a divinely inspired freruy uttered a Command which the kmg himself 
felt mutfftktd t«> obey (£ 74 ). So far as the psychciUaflicjil farm and 
the outward r-irprearioji of prcpfiecy are eoacmwd h no dijitinrtkin nmn 
be drawn between such Phoenician or Canoandc prophecy and ihal 
which is recorded in the Old Testament. The uniqtleneas of Hebrew 
jifvpbccy nnnsists in its moral and spiritual content So far as we have 
any evidence, no such profound insight and high idrali as we ftnd in 
Lhe prophetic books of the Bible were ever displayed by the pmphrLs 
of luJ. The farm of Hebrew prophecy vu given by tie culture of 
the times; the Content 'was new and distinctive, 

1W. Thr evidence of foreign influence in the Old T«Umttit is mil 
confined to myth# of laws or institutions. In some case* w Emir chaplet* 
and compusatkmi at? HOW s*m to be direclly ba^rd on non-Israelii* 
models. Such parallds m those between the story of Joseph and the 
Egyptian story of the Two Brothers, or between the Story of Moses 
and that of Sargon, may or may not be significant Mof* impressive is 
lhe rrsemhlance of Akhrnatcfi* hymn to the auri and Psalm 104 , Tu 
thus case some dependence on the older Egyptian hymn. direct or 
indirect* is hardly to be doubted- Psalm 1® also is closely pamllrM 
by one of the hymns of Akh«ut«fa reform. 

Contacts with th<n literature of Rii Shainrah have euuir to our 
at ten tmn reputedly, tine of lhe KnJm*. th* Stffch, ha* been shown by 
II L. Ginsberg In be of northern, non-Israel id- origin, or at limit to be 
based on a PbcvflJtii& hymn The evidence consisLn of parallels in idmi, 
Syrian pltfenimtl, traces of (fir Phoenician language, and lhe Charac¬ 
teristic stress on Ute idea of God la Lhe King on his throne (GKU 1^- 
SI). These and other marks of Phoenician influence in the posUerilic 


WHAT MKAB TJfEflC *TOSES? 


!! 1HJ 


pa?U of the Old Testament ar« attributed by Albright in large port to Ft 
literary renaissance of the Fhocnkiiu in the eighth and following 
»EL|iiiir4 (BASOR No. 70. pp, *5 f) 

Another vhich betrays ita Phoenician origin in the light nf 

the Ha.i Shnmtah pwin^ is Isaiah 14 H-15 The “ day star,, son of the 
morning” {AifAf bm-AaJn*tt ). retail i the Fact that both htt and i^r 
appear in the Ugarilic teat*, though the litter ri Hot thr son of the 
former but of El iBGG). Eiyon, the Moat High fvrnw 14), wc hat j e 
seen to be a name that iru known to the PhotnieLmsi (§ 145). The 
mounl of lisnubl) 1 In the rcfsihi of the north (verae IS) and the 
reference to the height* of the clouds {Verse 14) echo ideas that appear 
in the Ras Shamrah tablets. It in ulmost certain^ therefore < that thii is 
either a direct quotation or perhaps aft lfr»Ffcic Hebrew imitation. of a 
Phorfllrian poem (RB 1&37, p. 547). 

In part* nf the book of Proverbs also imitation of Canaanite modeli 
has been aeon (ART) 44), Mott remarkable of all such parallels, how¬ 
ever! ii the ci tended serin of contacts between the Egyptian Wisdom 
of Amenemope and one of the dearly marked divisions of the book of 
Inverts* (it 17-04:88), The name or ycty similar thoughts Iwar in 
thw books in the same order to an extent that cahftol be explained 
except by more or less direct literary dependence, While probably not 
as old M v. tii thought when it wan first liturovfred, the Wisdom of 
Ameneraopc is almost rrrtaprdy older than thr lijne of Solomon.® Perhaps 
it became known to the [smelites during the tUnr of dose conlact with 
Egypt in Solomon's reign. 

Inti'fTitinc parallels with lb* Song of Solomon have beeti observed 
in Egyptian literature (EEL -24411). but not of *Llch A kind in this 
case as lu indicate literary dependence, Remarkably cluv* contacts with 
the language of anrirnl liturgies also are found in lhw bvdy but 
enigmatic composition, On the basis of lht>*- pod other facts a group 
Jif American scholars maintains that the book is an ancient Canaandc 
liturgy of the cult of Tammuj now AJSL xxaix, pp. 1 ff). Mo*t 
scJwisni are as yet unconvinced hy the argument but it is based ofi Mich 
an impress! vr array of evidence that even if the book really consists 
of secular lnv*-*ong* or relatively laLe date, their form mil language 
may have been influenced by the hymns of the Tantlttui cult (| 14f). 
This may also be true, as has bttn suggested, of Isaiah's song of the 
vineyard {Isaiah 5- J If) 

1 Thr r*K fw U.r W-L, > prraE*l by 1 M MeGlini^y, Tie 

.i -mu-n -rw\-jpm q.i_1 f4i fl.»oA -df fCpLtMlir fftll ttmit y rl ducrt*tklL 

Waitiifitfon In). 


lH.IM-7) EX/LA^ATioBr. niusrmATIOM^ a SB tVAUSxtiax 

In the New Trttflflisnt Ibe hrimt thing we un find to >ueh nsn 
erf depend* nee on pagan source* is fhc occasional trace oI Stole influence 
In the ItiU of virtue* and dutiea in i cm* of the rpistles le.g. Epbeuui 
d: !-#)■ dr in such an expression of the 1 Chrialology 1 as C«1t>sa- 

1«U In Uo nH a* there any Itwh ck*r ami direct literary 

relationship as w c h*v* sera in the Old Testament. nor hn» archeology 
my particular contribution to nuke at this point. 

107. If we sect, with *11 t he*e futi ilk view, to determine the nature 
and extent of outside Lofitienre in the Bible, and its bearing on the 
originality and value of the Bible an a *ouw ebd channel of spiritual 
insight* aevtfftl Conclusions emerge. For one thing. It should lw dear that 
no mechanical idea of inspiration, no conception of rcvrtatbn as the 
direct communication from OH high of entirely new truth in entirely new 
forms, can stand in the face of the fact* oF archeology. The write!! of 
the Bible used forms of thought as well a* forms of language derived 
from their cultural heritage. Mythx. law*, initilUthoPa, literary forma* 
and even particular compositions which suited their purpose were 
freely appropria ted. 

On the other hand, the mftfc fully wc compare their source* with what 
they tnadc of them r the more dor* the profound spiritual gmiu* of 
the wiiten and of those whose experiences they report stand out in 
iharfi relief. What i* true of the originality of Shakespeare- as a lilrrery 
genius is true of the religious originality of the Bible. Taking as tbrir 
medium of expression what they found at hand, the historian* poeis, 
lawgiver*, and prophets of Israel train formed it and gave it new mean¬ 
ing. The originality of XttUl faniadf, as New Testament scholars rec og- 
rrire, did Hot consist in saying things which had never bt^n mM before, 
but in taking all that n-as best in the religion of his people. Turing it 
into * now Unity in the fire of his own personality. nftd burning out of It 
all the tini-.- ,-,f nationalistic exclusiveness and h'gnlistn. So top the 
older seers and writ ere of Israel, like Paul on Mare Hill quoting one of 
Inc pagan Greek ports (Aits 17:®.), were able to appropriate from 
Egyptian, Baby Ionian, arid CaUMfiite Sources what was suitable for the 
expression oF their awn convictions, transmuting it as (hey used it into 
something purer and finer. No ornr cap see this %q clearly as he who 
road* the Bible against the background which archeology paints for m. 

With regard to the Old Testament a Further punt ^trikinglv 

dear in the light of this new orientation, and that is the v*«l difference 
between Ihc religion oF Israel a* a whole and the religion of the spiritual 
pioneers whose experiences and Enright k bv? found baling ^prmnn 


CTHAZ Mean thebe itTon eh r 


ill ki7-») 


890 

in I hr Bible The religion of the people of Israel in general and iht- 
Lhifi l~eii 1 cult of the ml km lead, as *e View them in the light of arche¬ 
ological ir*rareh, Id *ink back into the general pattern of Ancient 
Oriental religion. All Ihe more evident ii the ataaiing advance of the 
great individual #wn who condemned Ihe current ideas and ways and 
proclaimed a religion of justice and righ Ltouineis, No there impressive 
proof of genuine inspiration uhl be desired. 

tW, Arcbcology may be painfully dull and boring, u the reader 
perha pus has- learned Id his sorrow from this book. Archeology way be 
fascinating. as absorbing a* a mystery slory, and as useless. To those 
seeking an scipr from all the perplexing prolilrnui of modem life it may 
be cooimcuihad- But a mhcology may itw p like ancient history in general 
and a certain Book in particular, be a valuable aid for the understanding 
of life, ancient or modern. When living in Palestine the writer became 
interested in the topographical problems involved in the Story of Said* 
bun* for his uncle's tail donkey p (I Samuel 9). Many hour* of fCtttflh 
were devoted to the ramifying qticsliofla which grow out of this narra’ 
live, until suddenly our day the whole thing seemed ridiculous. Why 
spend valuable litne following donkey* that weir lost three thousand 
yeara ago? Saul did not find them anyway, and they got home safely 
without him. In similar moods one grows weary of aetfadow mapping 
of pavements and draeriptkms of pottery fragment*, 

The of course, E« that all science can make progress only by * 

division of labor and narrow specialization. The question* to which the 
arthoologiit devotes hi* tame are no smaller and no more removed from 
immediate practical need* than many of those on which a physicist 
or biologist spend* hti days and night*- New contributions to human 
knowledge can come only in that way. Not every man can do that kind 
of work, ll would be too bad for society if all men were scholar*, but 
there ii no danger of such a calamity. In thia respect archeology simply 
aland* with Other members of the family of the icimec*. 

Even in its application to the understanding and appreciation of the 
Bjhk archeology may seem to have a hearing only on the least important 
aspect* of bibticat study. To a certain extent that i* true. Archeology 
can teU us a great deal about the topography of a military campaign. 
It can teU us nothing shout the nature of Cod. Bui If (h? foregoing 
chapter* have done nothing else, ll is to he hoped that they will have 
shown one thing: the spiritual message of Ihe Bible U conveyed in the 
vessels of ancient Oriental thought and life, and to understand the 
essential ideas we must understand that thought and that life. Even 


(II KPLAPf*T!(iNp IUA’i$TMTIQS«< *NP VrJLUEJITHHF “MI 

tilt burning of citin mvd the buildiDg of walla ire parts of Lhe rtory in 
which h embodied. the prophetic concept fen of life's meaning, 

AHhcobgy help* to tie eicegeta do m\ to hi*torif*i fseL Christianity 
I* * historic*! rrltgion, based nn the event* experiences. and ideas 
rccopdcd in the Bible. The interpretation nf the Bible in ell s^es has 
suffered too much from a tendency to force one's own beliefi upon it 
Allegorical and symbolic ways of interpreting it arc hot the only *ay* 
of lining this. Why did Irau* go up lo Jerusalem? What did he mean 
by the Kingdom of God? Men iflimff thee questions te»rdiiifl to 
whsl they think Jesus would do nor say if he wu wIlsL they think he 
vab 4 instead of bringing their own thoughts auto subjection to what be 
actually wu and did and said. The prophets, the Psalms, the laws, the 
eplsUes art- ftll thus used merely Ms old bottJrf into Which men may 
pour their own pew win*. Archeology make* the Bible an Aht-ieM 
Oriental hook, and in so doing may seem to remove it from modem 
life and present needs, but at least it compels ns to uk what the Bible 
Kftllj Siyi and really nacana, II will not allow us to disguise Moses or 
Tsainh or Paul in modem clothing. 

But is net that just what preaching and religious education must 
always do to have any vitality or reason f&r tiateiice? I* there Hoi 
something to be said for the view of those who claim that we under* 
stand Shakespeare beat tv hen. we present his plays in modem df«j? 
hfu It not the chilfrli translate the Bible into terms of modem life and 
thought? It must indeed; but a tUtuliLkni is not a new composition. 
You cannot accurately translate a sentence until you Understand il r 
and you cannot understand it if you do not know the language in which 
ft ta written. Only when the meaning of the Bible for the ancient 
Oriental world ii understood, as archeology helps us to understand ft, 
nan then: be any valid application of it to modem needs. 

In an old and almost forgotten boot with Ihc forbidding title 
,J Monumental Theology * (PMT) the point id made that the use of art 
io worship Es tnrkhed by a knowledge of the history of ait Only ft 
historical understanding make* possible the right Use nf old buildings 
Mid religious symbols. The Bible itself it a part of the historic heritage 
of Ihc churcb, an ancient expression of religious truth still used in wor¬ 
ship. like the great cathedrals of the Middle Ages. Like them it requires 
a hWfital understanding to be used to the best advantage. 

1OT. Since muck has been made of archeology as a weapon against 
the H higher criLitkiin/’ a word must be said on this subject. Archeology 
has in many eases refuted the view* of modem critics. It hiU shown in 


WH-4T MiAM TMEPE STONES f 


(* W) 


a number of ib»Lihc» that these th.HI ml ofl f«be Assumptions and 
unreal utifidftl ^hefnei of hisiorLcaJ development (AS 1B3S. p. 1B8 j. 
Thi"« is a real cqn Lrihutiyn, and nut to be minimiici At tbt same time 
it is quite untrue to mv (hat all the theories of the critic* have been 
overthrown by areheological dUecvrriei. Jl is even mope untrue to *ay 
that the fundamental attitudes and methods of modern scientific rrilt* 
cisns have bttn refuted. Ambedafpeal evidence cannot annul the 
internal evidence of the Bible itself, though it may now and ihtra expose 
a mistaken interpretation of that evidence- Without thorough critical 
knowledge of the biblical material the feat bearing of archeology on it 
cannot be understood Particular theories are always subject to correc¬ 
tion. m none knows better than the critic himself, Interpretations of 
the Bible, interpretation or archeological evidence, and views of their 
mutual relations mutt be CurotantEy verified and revised, like all sc'irnUfk 
hypotheses. 

And what shall the patient do when the physicians disagree? He 
must do «hit he hits to do in other matters choose the best authorities 
he can find and trust them, though not too far, hav Log more confidence 
in ■ general consensus than in any one writer. At some points the best 
authorities may all be wrong, but step by step ignorance retreats as 
knowledge advances- 


ABBREVIATIONS 


|\AP Mbritfil, W F, Tk* 4rc*#Mfaff pJ Flfrrfmr Mr tfnWf r |W ». 

AASUR Akh«^ rtf Uu M«£« ftMiki of rirunJol RrjBi?rA 

AB 1,11 “Atj-io But," I IB, pp. lui ffh IE ($r«i ^PP lURI 

AiA A m-rrrm /ram*! -nf Arriir-rfchjj 

MSL .tnm^Mla JaMtmtf ?f 3*-hiM- JjffTDfairTf. 

AHJ> A]hfi|kl, W. F., J Rw«i b 5^ LuA" 

^TijfKSfdnief. isSfl 
AS Hr A^frkPCT -SrWar 

ASAC AIhriflfci, W P L Mr &w A in Ut Clmtivwr v . l«u>. 

AI7R Alt, A-r J'Jw tVijpMf* dtj- iMfMktixrkrm JUrkU. IfH. 

BA Tkt B&UbbI A rcAuMLifafruE. 

PAR G A, A amd rir 7th «d n fl3? 

[LABOR ft tk4 r4*Mr**» ScA^ifr af tMraiaj jft#*fa T vJi 

BBE1I Btirna*-i. Hlllmr. TA# B*At rtf Untftp* t Amman Owtd Aniir rv). 

1*38. 

BC F*r fiifmmfi wf Clriilwnlf, cdJlrd bj F I, Knilti JiHm Ami Kki^p 

Ukr, k IHO-S 

BGO " The Hirtih of tt# Giwriou* HJtol R*iatiFu3 Godi ™ (Syria ixr. pp. 148 fly 

Blit! ISreuUd, J. II, Ihitijry *f Eftf*. I*If 

BJftL *J Mr Mh Rytandt tdhmty, iftBefuf#. 

HMAHp H*rrr. i^ A [.V. ,lffln*.i\T E-ibTnfiir, ml. I, HB1M 

CAD I’fltwii, C M . Fill .4.Trkn*uiv\jictil tMarvt f^wr. IftlT 

CHT Chirr*, E, JftrtJ r=*l (MtifUfe*' tkt Baghdad &W t> , 1631. 

CWC Chirr*. I. TAi]r HWi *. Cia V , Eijft. 

DR " Ttw Drtlh ^ R*^ " (V» t v : , p hj it. 

DDR DtuktDdw H, f-rx Ac«irtri«r ir Jta SAiwrr rE TA ruic-n 7/*iam**i, 1917 

DIG DwJjriif. G„ JmW« —*f HH Orf-mdr, I WO. 

DMAl LhW. G. K. ud M.1™, C„ **# APawr^m Irf« r IMi. 

DS3 Hitman, G. r Sacrvd SiteM mi Fd|i (Ehglnh tiKidkllni *1 IX* and Wtft 

Jim.*, inf 

EEL EtfH*ri^ A. Tkt htimtmn ■ *J Mr ji*o#*E £jppri>aj, English IflJMfrOTi, 1K7 
EUR Eji#***. R w . TU IMF 

ET £zf«nrDf|i Titntf. 

GBR Gdfm*. K n Rtallenk da jlMaJimri =«« rfEfm. rfrrmnt i). tHT. 

GBS Grmiil^ ¥. . IHt. 

GHdA fi4ri*c k A. firtl lti(rF r t'Jtpfrnlfr r ngj .1 |*3S 

C4J GraLuit J-, /prill JwrfjM. IH3. 

GKL 1 Gqi^kti. 11. L, AdJiu Iffmaii. ]tK, 

GMCC Crrmhim. W. C., M^jr, li G . £'4lnr q»d t'^f, l»fi 

GGGJ GJivtA. s . r Ar Oik*T Suit af tk* lo*J± h, EHQ. 

ILS AWr 

JAOS /hthI U-JT iA j A kMu (>rt« tJ 5 khIv 

JBL /prb^ «| LLTrnfuH. 

IBR /MfW P .r IMvk-. 

JJPES iHindl! #J Mr Jfk-liA PibrMur Bsarf| 

^TOa Jamal sj Mr PoJjrtiu OmM ^kWi^. 

JRS Jack, J. W„ fir Au Slum Tahiti, TUm Bam-m* «t tkt Did frln nl. 

1SU. 

*« -Th* Rt^Mi *( K^krr ifuziM BmJ- 

» 


fSyri* r< pp. t*-H) 


4154 WlUt MIAS THISE STOS^fl? 

KBA F T^r flirt 4«if A Tfcafirfoff, 1M0 

KfiAM Kfiijraa, F, Omt flirt itkJ f1# .1 l>-ri«J fd J F }N0 

Wni, If, flf fli flifrt, [iTJ. 

MAB Mnii^iHFTy, /. A„ iln^ii amJ tk* BM* m 1*34. 

M m MrrL.T J «Wv r l«M 

M™ itatauld. E M. Trt Pwuin *f r« u Rijhetrt » Jkiirtr Cort* < 
Um, IS3J 

fflVAT Nirfli. M. If** n-^i df/± 4f/j-fi iho. 

0117 Hnninil, A, T. WyfiFi ajf FaLtHimM uJ ^ iU3t 

file nmrmtil latfUmi* Cp^m’mw^rmtumr. 

WT rtrwwriT tmlHuU f nUimism*. 

FEW FJ*rtm* ErjrtmJju* Fund ifr±ttM v 2t*Um*nt, 

PE4J r^Lats** Erplm fcm ffwmrtr4f. 

PJft raLiitmn /*MhL 

FMT Viptr, F_ £^n(|Hf m rtf ^mKunWi rlrtrtp*. TfrfT 
QPAP c/ Mi Drputfmtmi pf e? Part* cm. 

HA fh-c.m.f irApTinDTtfM. 

RB Jfa*« #^r 

RI>M RuirkT, II H , |1*™ fi, JUW* (1 i tkf JW ir p rfj IT*imrr fi /IW flu** 
*/ Ihairf, 1434. 

5CB SrBm. a II., TAi CM*jW «/ flfM-nr, IBS. 

5M0 Sfmr, E A^ AffMpq4E*id* IRH. 

TIL TwaiW, H- Iu4lM trfiVr* fU-lni -h. 1438. 

WDFi, *] c . PflMt i. 11115 ; iL l*W 

ZAW ZfiYiMr^l fir rtf ^ i i-iW—^i'ir’rt tr'LurutJ*^ 

SlW ZnfieAn^ |ir rti \#h.ffjSfl.»ir*rl , irLf l1 r wnppc.Ao^l 


SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY 

Fgc partictiJur excavations the primary toiiffin art the- official reports 
of the CTpedrliEKLi, To the uninitiated, bowser. thei* are tieitfcwr mtff- 
nor enlightcningr whiJe those who are prepared to Use them will 
know where td find theni- 

KH.V gives a readable account of the history of arch eo tog i^l research 
iu the Near East; as regard* the mutt* it if less satisfactory, AAF, an 
excellent jnt reduction Id the subject* is unfortunately out ct print- The 
best stud compendium uf material on our subject in Etvgl»h is still 
BAB. AMD is an admirable and authoritative sketch. GMCC is a 
stimulating pioneer effort to rewrite the history of Old Testament 
religion from the areheotegical point of view. As a statement ami 
interpretation of the results of udwolafieaJ rewAfi h m I he Nenf *pd 
Middle East for the bklory of religion. Ah AC can not h* ignored by any 
serious student. 

On the whole the best sources of information lor the general teadrr 
life the irtidn which appear in the perwclifflls named in the foregoing 
table of Abbreviations. Especially useful for the £n R trth reader are BA, 
BASOH, STvd FEa Brief notes of new dilrovcriis are prints regularly 
ift AJA and AJSL and good articles appear from time to tune in JBR 
More technical accounts are given by JPOS slid QDAF. 

Thou; who rend German will find in GBHL convenient BHUMIW 
of the main facts on particular topic*, while WDP gives a masterly 
presentation of the chief findings of Palestinian archeology by period* 
In French wv have RU AH t. a thorough and competent ^position with 
nptt'm\ attention to the brarinR of the materia! on hibliral history. The 
rf , m p]et inn of this work and its Iren Action biK» English are eagerly 
awaited. 








INDEX OF PERSONS AND SUBJECTS 


Abnfcm El ft T*. 1M- 1 M " 

ArfcM infloenc’T. I 71 ■ 

AftipP*. £« K#ftsd Ap ¥ f'P*- 
Alwb. II ft. W, BO- 1ft IW- 

Ahu. II S3, m BD 

fjPt-* iM *» W " ,Mt . 

X'H’falim Luif^Jhftf fcud II w ft 

m, m P it# 

AtWlL W F* IS«. H, ft »- »■ 
H.M, fli. Hk ft ft l<» Ift lM tsl 


im m. im, iu 

Mtuuiei tb» CreiE, M H. «■ 

All 4 I I 1 ## 

An^d Uhfeft II ft ft 7D. H. 11* 

1*4. L« P lii Its. tet 
AsnfuopJHi 111. II ft "I 

An™phii JV. AU*mI«i 

AmBW^ltak, I 1« 

AnuMtH-flll »■ IS- I* 0 

Am l». 

AuniDT i™i]p, II W- IM 
AtabAm til, IV, II BS P IM. ITT. 
\hlip*tcr P I M- 
AiLLmiL Fflrtj™, 1IM- 
AaEM/. Mirk, I M 
Apiw. tl»i IM. 

Aribi: Afmiic Linn*# 1 , fllllHI*. !*¥■* 
H..I LiflumcT. II H. 64. I ft ■«- IP. 


IN. IM, IH 
Apuuuii, III IT, 19. 

Aruuic lurup, ll » *1- ft !11, 
Ilf. 

Anrh*Um, li * ** 

Arrtu [V, | Ofl 
Ait, I 1ft 

Art.^r*** I. II. ll H W 
Am. II101. I« 

A.htnfc, I IM 

.ULuxbuH^. lift HI- 
Aupiutu; A»j™a AwurkeIm, fflll"™- 
rr^ucion. uvd bifatHf. II ft ft ft. TT- 
7i ft 10* 111. HI. 197. ItO. IM- IH- 
is*. iK. im. ift m. 

AlLfUltQL 11 E# r 93- 


B*uU f 103 

iLifiLiru; Bahjlaclu nll|krt. 

Md M«. & Hi. H1 P IM 

Ift 117, Hip IM, 1ft l«- 1«. Vft 


S*r *Jh Attadim linlWffr »“*! ChJuiw. 

Lim. 

Bwdiidek I Ift 
EUA W F-. II St. 19* 

Baf CuMm, I ISA. 

Bftll^, Cheater A, II », «, *7 

BeLhmr. II ft ]M 

EV wm . I «J 

MnM« E- I ITT- 

BILki. F. J„ El it. ft ft Ift Iti 

Boot -mik m* I Ht- 


C«llwrr. li J, I M 
CAUfuIm. I Si. 

Cambvjn. I 91 

riiMflltl—: Ci*M®ite lir.rJiltr. Mll-fi, 
hli^H r uJ Laiuencr. II ST. 70-73. TJ, 
Hi J So- M. 1 34-44. US-BO. IB+nl. Ill ft 
CukH, I #7. 

C<iHiu, 1 94. 

Ctu^UU, I M. 

Qmt 117* 

Ckkf*. E- IIH, li, 177. m, m m, 

IDA. 

CilMfei fJendklriB). II109, XH. 

Cikjr pWinf, It WJ. 

CLkkL ut, It ft ft 
O^, A.T, I Iti 

C. KlH 

Oefeem. C. J* 1189 

Com. II Ml IK). 

CDEHpoHlkm fif tit imki ol ll* BiUt, 

11 - Hi j 

tMjH or Cuw. II M-41. Tt. 7* Ift* 
C»*[«A j- w, lllft in 
r,| pwmiTi^ C. G_ I l#t- 
Canamy, E N, 

Cvpma. CjTiV 11 * ™Stm* *fid 3n«a»iM P 
II Ti, Lft 1II P 11* ISA 1ft IM. X»- 
CjTW, It ft M. Hi 1W- 

Dilmu P O. i «S. 

Du*]. I tn. 

Oviiu. lift Mh IBfl. 

DivkS r ll71. 74, il.ft 101. Hi. 

IMxni t« 

Deupalii. II ft M 
Dbhsc^, A. ■ il. 
tvm n, n isi, ift m. 


2ST7 



WHAT MEAN THESE hTfJS'CNl f 


1209 


DhlWTBC, E. r 1 iff* 

Dai Lw aj Li i, | H. 

J*OHh<jeii, lU. 

OwwkL M , K 13". 

Chuuihd, 1, Kl 314. 1M 

Ear 11 ■ j ro-'.L jf Pih, 11 BA, 104 
I MU 

'Ej&j^+Wi CiillMT Jill J iPlipHtf*. 

II »r *3, life, !«, IM-R 33-4, 53B, Ul. 

1*4, I at LC4. 1*4, m 

"--r , r d. i ttH. 

Ua-pi^iW f^ppyri II trt. la. 1*0. Ill, 1». 

JSl. tM. 

EHjih, I BO. 

EUa I M. 

Eil^-tu. r. m . ii«. o« a off 

Ewwb, book of L f U 
EphriT. I 140. 

E-wK*ldtn. II4H, 7*. 

Efil.ivrv4«h, II HI, 111. 
ljl]# r l| fit, iw 
F^Xwki. II A!, JT r Bl r Cl 
Etn. If» r 614 

y*k* t, c. a.. i jb 
Fkrtd, lie, AS. 

F«« nwnracripL If », 91, Jf 

GlhiEliEU, I As. 

1MX C J_ II -pe. 1* 

OiUiHl, K. HTtl. 1ST, l», in. 

Cdfift II Si. in. 

Gfcrtluft. J_ If AS, II, Aft. t|t9. 

MlBftk, It 1*1, ITS. 

Gtmbttt. II- I-. tl S3, ||4 13], IK 

Ghj«k, St, II H at Ml, l(4 h 1», 

<k«tfr r II H, L>* 

Gc^rU-f^iinibu E R r I I IN . 

G«d™.C fl. list tT4 
CrmJiun. W. C. || lit. ISP, 144 1*4 1*7, 
174 IPO, 

Dika, t ]D0 

Gnck railun. ?di|iui, uJ hlHo, 11 Bt- 

4, «-a. na. m, it? i si 

ts*^k UfigHi* 0* New TatiWit, 

II 41 * 

Gmj. P. L. 0. | II. 

ItbihRi, It 4A. 7EP, 71. 1&V4 
Huihnauit, | I St. 
llwdfiiH. II P4. 1M. 

liwl, 


llHTmliwi. EE W. | ftt 
Brntuhli II Stf, off. IS*, m 
UiMvt, || T7„ *>, 1S1. 

I£ehivv Iv.Vimfr. SI Afl 40. 

Hcvnd [b Gitftl. II «, B4-4. U, 103-4. 117. 
134, m 

HmJ Air^pp^ II is. M, 104- 
J Ernxl Sniipw. El fiA, AA. 

HnLrtkr, W. A . I lit 
Hrttluh. It44, 71. W 
H'tVr CriLir-.ini. If I. IBB 
JlQpwfct. || V , I Sin 
llipp«ti*m, | m 

F|jiriS«. ^flttUfr p--hI InflumcT. fl «. 

71. IW. Itt. ISA, 1*4 HI, I0O 

ILiirf-TfEin. A W, | |Tt. 

Ilm, | m 
Kaibev 11®,!? 

llujTLuii. Hop. 7i, ho. r**, lTi-t 

Ilib.**. II JO-7, As, m, 7U m, H, L|d, Ltd. 

197. 14 E-t 1ST. IH 

InrrnM k\lin. It ». 1M, 1JS 
InfMi. Hintt. | 139 
liufnptrvrirt. || *0. It, tt. 40, A3, M. 11*- 
10. I0C4- 

IblptnlMTl- | | B?. 

1 HO 

W H | 173 

Ju’-faunll^ pLe ir^l. I 40. 

A-I.r^hbi. | 7P. 

■*•****«, II 51. HI. 

JrfmifckiJn. |i 7t, HI 
JpfcMMED, ||JKT. 

J+Vbmpkml, I | H7 , 

Jekfl^pb, I 147. 

Jeku, || (LI 77. », ISA. 

Jrrrmuk, li m. m 

II, H 7A 1W. 

JaiH. tUih Df H 103. hiitwkil^ W, tlf, 
1A9. 

J#*bd, I W 

Sbc BxpLuL, | «. 

JcMrpii. | 5ft, 

Jovrpfau. H V. S3. A4.J, Soft 

llo&i, m 

Jo bA, ii to, isp, m, 

II M, 71 

K«J«. Sir F, || 31 , 47 . IM 

LKhi4b If lttr^ f | P|. S3 r 54. HI. 1*3 I. UK 
I To. IT?, 100 


IKfcEX OV rEBEOKK AND IUDJECT& 




L**r*flf*. T. E. I 101. 

I***, 1 IB. 

Lifdi Pnrrr. tW 
J.vujiul II OS. 1«- 


HacdHli*. H. A. g T II0W. 104 
Aljfa-iri.br’ri. W mT»brHl ttr+tni, 11 8Sr 1(1 

tt*?, 

MnkdJiL Bil*Wb M . I 10.1 

MuldriMntti ■ riling I** 

M PCBMJWL, II U r 19. 

rijit*. II 43. (WM t*f 
Murimxr. I lfl-3 

MftLcrml- «dJ efrWdofy, If 11-I& *U« 
M*f r II, U, II 1*1. 1H. l*t |M II" id 
IT*. I» 

Mvn. L A. I m 
MHb, If 70. BL 3M. 

Sink, T A. II tt. 94-fr- 1M 

buiMiiij'i, II Kl . 101. 
f I M r 79 

H*n*vuh r l|m M, P4 r tw 

Mnhi, I I SI. TT, m 

ilpwtw^iitaias' inttunwi-. If 1*7, 14* »* 

k|wi Aujiiadia, Btljlduiiii. 

Hksk, 1 BO 


Mi No. I S3 
libKfcf. ft. 

Hrtritl .tons. HIT. 77, ISO. Iff. in. 
M-h.tft. I 103, ttf- 
Mtmlf’-nsrrj, -1 A „ I M 
Him* If AT. 1*4. 

Mn-ittkd. s, H IM, 1W 

My{MieiB laftiKrK*. II Hr 100- HI- I'd 


ISf- 


MyikiLa*, 11 m. 1«. ESI 


Sfttwi^uu; NahrtMU ndiurp. rtlifi™, 

II w. 119, ]!W, 1*4. 1*1. 
??Abopfl«iMr. I TO 
Nihanbd. I 01 
Nut twin. I SO. 

ruJlure. 1 *7- 
NiTrfW. m B» 

N*buf rmSnf ppb* (Ntbudhll^HUMr^ ■ I V **- 
?1. 11. 130. LA, 1», lil 
Vnbn-. 1170. 100. Ill 
NritiMkK 11 M, «11, IH. HO- 
N^B*hjikDLM rm^T*. M ^ «l- 

I 01- 

Ncnvdk. a. 1119. 

NeH«. M . 11M 


DlmiW. A T . II Iftt. ]||.» 

Orori. II <«. ESI 

Offcl tMdIlii». II 44 r IB. 

tirtnc* II 47. M. 1«M F HI. 17Q, 

Qiv rhjfurlvua n. I ffl 

E’lV phLkni^Uri Pilrt t JiWLUJ, 11 17, 87. 
PMtmym* retipan, I l» 
l h ULii:!ni'j uurrlfii.K^i. II14M. IfM 
Pkpijri, II TO. TO. tt-J. 41-1, 4*7, 01 i S3, 
117. |fU-t 1H. 

PwhaiiHi, f >1*4. 

PaiI hjfei :i. I BO. 

Pul. II 44. W 
Pialur. StthUi.. I M 
W, ll63 r TS. 

JVf,!i™. f EM 

1\ !■■!■. Ffcrwwi ctiltflfii nUpH. **4 

BfeW*, II 9S. HI. 1*7. Ill 

Fir W. Ubirn M U, H, 111, 
1*9- 

Pbilip. f U. 

nidation. llTO. «*. H. 1OT. lit II#. In 
Pfrfe «( Fyhlt*. Il«, l*3 r l». 

PhiMil^ui ruliurr ind in flamer. II j£U. 74. 
N, 0k, S9 r HH. m. 1ST, IH*. UH, t» 
m. 194. ISO, l«t 
Ffflmprjr. I W 

| JfS. 

rn.. l .!^c •» ud Lb# pn^iEvrU. II 0-1. BO 1-19. 
rral^lHiic r> p h«K II *1. 139- 
Pi famuit i dw . I TO. 

Pli4wiO*M|*. I *9. 

PIqIcbj. !ht Pcukmia. II B3, 110-T, 


Qarqu-. belli* ol L | Id. 

QtaMiilK If to, 1W 

Buu If. list. KL. 0 d fl. 111 , 1*7 
MS. ISM; Hlr UTiHj IV 150. XU. 
I 74 

JUitmr. air Hi - I iw. 

Ru SLinnli t4lll, fl W JJ. ^T S. T*. 1E8. 
Lt3. 1H, 1401 i*A4v i^i- IM-fl. 

1«. TO*. 190. IBS. 179. ITT-t. in, 1W, 

Iff. 

HrilciMjn. II 7fl r 101 
iUln, rtdl c*. f It 
ftpx f 3 H !,nn. If t-W. 

RrtLS. I ML 
IkbfO i SO. 

Hobiumi'i Artb. I *0- 



300 


WHAT ME-AX TTIEfE STOXKA? 


EiuiiMn ndlun-. irlifWA, IhBucbct, 11 IS. 
134. L4J 

IU-n-f. jU«. IIM. Ut. 

R*rm I 1^1- 

Jktwl plm, II I t-U-S- 

faMFilim I 1 R9 

T ._ || Hi n 

MSuij, t ITS 
5 *ji*n ii, llavm 
B«d, I w. 

S»rmV I m. 

Sdlnd^L R t I » 

Snh£^li. I HI 

HI, IB 

Sferiie*. I 111 
StyiW.. I 75 

gfdi. -V-rF-liiwkn, II Itt, 71. lit ■*?- 
StirtKiiA Sefevrid... II KS. nt* 

^Ikn, O. ft. I m 

SamickdK tl M. ». 1M, ■ »- IM 

&pdcfaft, IMj. tl II. H 

Biti L II 71,, L6i 

Shiiuivrr HE, II u, rr r t« ; iv, i ipi 3 
V r | 7B 

Shamfir. I At 

Sh y*&. H 03. 1«, l«p I» 

Sfcipb*. G. M_ 1 Iff. 

Stkan. ijiBdTpttf*., 11 1*. 40. I®, lit 
Si™i. 1 109. 

&M, ftpHtt ind xknii&Ai™. I II 
9dfin«i. II *4 TH, «. I03. 119, 1«- t* 
Sprier, E-. 

Start*?- I. L. I ». 

atMt^Empb^r, I 1*. 

Suii&iX E L. HIT. 3Q3, 104, ISJ. t**. 

m. 

I IM. 

ErjlS*?> CuhnLET. fdjjfMHl, BCfd mfl****# 1 *. 

II IH. 14t4 F* 

Tibrrr^-J*. 1139. 

TAtu d*j, Hilt 1*1. 1*3. IH, 19$ 
TW* «Lk AemJ*MI Ultra, fin 5K-*srAh 
fata 

TuitkKL I n 


TVIt | If 

Tempi*-, II IB, 139-4. 17J 
TmA, 1 3H. 

Trripiiini. I 141, 

Tnt *f lb« UiM* r I I it »«. 41 
THwfa. H ^ j. Ill39.ua. 

Thin! Will, II». 194 
Theda ma ELI. 11 TD-f 111, 147. 
tihrnBP. If M-i. «. 

TlpbUb-ptor Itt II«. W 
TiiiP, M M. 1S3. 3W 
Tobiah, Tahiti. II H. W. H 
ToiagrroT, H . If St itl. m. 

Trajan. I OS 

T *i t is*. 

L'fTErilif Utic?p 4>- uul litarafcHnr. SUr Raj 

SJtamrmll taxi* 

X’ri*b, I IM. 

VtVr, A rrii bishop. I H-- 

tl™*h. I 70; F«UV InieHpl™, II *9. 1*3. 

111. 

YjJm, usrtj oI. f 33 

Yi■[■■«M In- 

Ybrml, FL II M, IM. 351, l». 1U 
YiC, f IB. 

Wikmun. L, H itS. IM- 
WriUnfv, C, If ±5 r Ii, lDI-i. 119. » 
t». lit, Ul 4 1T3. 

Wridaw, r. f in. 

Wlwn, J. I IM 
Whubob, II 74, lt3 

Wwii*?, c. l.. ll *s. M. », m, Its, 

Wnjbl. 0. F, I IM. 

WfiUei Mlrfak. I 57 

XEDOpfapOL. K tl . 

x™. f tt. 

SHtatifelSl, 

7 ^L>h I 61 

^eiMi ptpjr. Bl 91. IS- 
&p3lAPi4^ !«, 


ISDEX OF PLACES 

ntorc Mwlrro Arabic pUc^aimn art ifUJiwd) 


AaM Mr '.4ifai. 

Am, Ff ‘AU*- 

m Aff*i*K »**?, bt. 

Aj {^Mt, 11 «M. 14. 97. JO*, m 111. 

3 At Hi. 13* 

Alb. act Vjiaarti\xT. 

'4 mi d-IJaieitdf, pet KiB*ali Bamc*. 
AUvlitin, kt T'il ^ 'Jktm 
A*J b {AcrW An*, flAnUn^. 11 WrJ 
Akim, I 1«. 

Annul*. ilbbbalSi-Aintftf*). II W, «. »=* 
AillWh, tl ti, 3ft- 
AibiLod. I Tt 

Aihkabn. AiUbo, II 79 r 3*. ft !** 

Ailnar. II L4fl, Itt 
■4|i*AwA l» 

Aibru. Ell A », m 

Ami ww Tapi*. 

akIuJi STz-fcMrip*). Eioj 

S4L iJ-fVB , tl *0. a» 

SMvlwC tl«- ?*■ «- 

Bm'iiak. m ?hri*hrm 
BriTck. il all. 1*1,1« 
fell-alwan 
ft™r*. mtr Brthfl. 

bthfl (ftnflk), tl«, il, H, tfrl. II"- 
19ft. lie, IM 

flrth-lion^. I U!) 

Betikhr^. I l»- 
I W. 

>HUw {Brth-dwfl. SiiiSm 
pJhb, 1IU. SI. Tl *, 74, SAP. M **- 
mo, LOA-tf. llfl, l*fl. IM, ISA 1*T. HM- 
14P.W, 153. IflB 

Bttir. ih“«nn (9bU Unfrl. t IU 

IbUMi (4b ^ 

ha iti. t«. 

ftrkh-«* (AUpM He, », 

ss. m, 103. in. i« 

Byhba tGebai, JcJwtfj. IE«H. Ti H, ftA 
lift, IIL 145. IM. aw. 1*A i». 

Cabai?. IS*. 

CbjhtmuFh. I 1U. 

CaftMth. ll7» H fl*.li# 

Crtbtb. 11 31- v 


Opm^rn*. ll«, T7-I, 114 

IMab, ** KijbtSMepJwT. 

E5*ka_ I 113. 
tWpliL 1 W- 
EM*. IIS 
Dilw. Hft II, t)3. 

KbLk. he 

FJjt’p h.■ r.I,r:ir. ** Eke fih.au Li**; papyri In 
F^nwni and Subject*, 
gili in. i iw 
r r ■ r FiT r KE Al 

Km-EFl^r WiU, &Mja. TriT rf-Xtdn- 
f*l>. M TS> til. lit Hi 

Erast MnaUiii, I ft 
Gm. llAlf. 

Gtk*l wm ByU« 

tiorr, 11 TL 7A ttk. Hi. 1H IN-A Jl*. 
1». 1ST. 141. ISti-t- 

Gftefch (TdT d-FilK ft si. I«K I07 r Ltl. 
Gamarrah, I ltd 

liiniaili. I 144 
Hiin. t LSH 
lUiar. |m. 

IlffaEGIl. II 91, 134 
Htdrrak. tl S7 r 154. 

Iromum. I *5- 
I-4-. I 33 

; f w, b? idw 

Jrrwfc M U, ft l«J, 194 

Jmdtb CM M-SWifa?, tl *M. rr. fti- 

I, W, *-W I0L, ICW-4. Ilf. 143. I W. 1(W 
J^maJrm. II if. U. m. li.3. ». 103. Ill 
A 149. 114 

K^Srth (pq tbt DcnaiM, I 71 
XpkV*H B*™« CAb I <*A 

KinuL f I Tl, W 
AAirbar II |i+. HI 

ITtarbrr #f-T*A«q*A. *« Brtb-nir 
tiiTm. I 3M. 


*01 


m 


what meat* til car. 9TOME9? 


Kp*Ul-*lil«T (Mr, T*U Int . 

Si M r W>l s 73. hCM, 6D-W. ON, LOO. J«, 
lH r IH r lift* 3|7, 134, 3 ml I, IBS. 

Krt. Klu, V 

IT**f I I BA 

VlUT.Lib, t *7. 

i^th <t#j! If if tun, at *. 

ST^B* « 9, 103-*, III. iI ft. 113, 11#, lit. 
IU, irr. If?, IH 334. IMi 171, 1®^ &-i 

klEan. a ludrt rf SoftmM ■«* 

liHLlb, RT r-U *+SlfL 
L n, I w. 

Mraihi*. — 

iTiiT tlHsr' ini, II«B-TDl R*. Hi, 

i c l. iisj, m. 17H 

Hiru* <M*™h*h. T^J .SuAlKh «Y, IE *1 
M. 103. Ifld. II*. Lti, IK, 1W 
Miuik i! «. I« 

^kfkldD rfIfH. »,«. 

n, 71. 1H W-7. f^| r *9, 97^ U&-3. 
]«-*, 11W. 3Sfcli. l*4Hfl. lift. m. UB, 
l»> 140, !BQ. 

I 191. 5c* TtB *^H**b*k 
IBtfef (Nspdkl. ilHi M, ID, 5^ 

pt* tffthiu 
JtpvnL, ft *+. 3» 

?',pji J jr. I B0. 

Nudi. M », »TI, 135. 117. l®, 3M^ 

IH, l» 

OpW- II MH IM 

EWp^Lt, IH. 
hlka. I H. 

Pompcai. H». **5- 

PlflinnWA. w "Akim. 

Q*m. If n, IM. 

Q*n Sarfafwft, II H, 303. 

TU-_-%-n*. MW t lU 
lliblMtb Amincti «H 

Jt» 3W <l"|«U) r *IWL I®. I*. 117 f 
If], 1A t«. Set Rs> &um1i 
hi Ll PrrWM <ud 

$uw* rStbMtJCi 5&*in**k) r da*, a 
■ft, n eo, @3v fli-*. ft*-*, ist-t* ii*. iit. 
W4, lUft, IH m. m t 175. Wl. 


Sr>tfcflpiiEM, ■» BeUk ib™ 

?-#, j ..i«jJjj rft. *c Huriri. 

(Mtf4U, II W. M. 1*3. 

i«i. iiH. in, lm, m £W NiWki. 

SArtlft A!,r rt *, N’t lied] 5brdm 

ShTUk IS **. ST. 139. LM. 3111. 

Boim, fill. IIS. II* 

Swlum, I in, 

S*M. M St, IM 

Tuwh, II m. w, fiFT.ft, lift, lti, in. 
IM. 1«. 

TuiLft (Atuu. lUimvt. 11 9®. 3#- 

rinUWw CTiipdii^ f H- 
IVMil l| «, ST, IH. IS*. 1M- 

T*U Ab* HoMm.m. II M, lift. 

TVJ jferf if ini m, kk KwiLt-M-ptad 
Frff II », « 

frif (MiteUm). 171. SW 

AiTMtti k-tLen, ia index of Pcrpsoi uuJ 

Tiff W lhiW, M LprK.tK 

pf-F*r*i h H TO Sol JI4, lift 
TtiX d-Fiit IM r.LW.. 

3-cJ | *1. 

r«E rf ffn^H, Kf M*n 

r«ll rf-tffri. If Jf. ftfk |IH-4 

Tii)f /ir^TWfc. I**. 

rjfl if-JiwWA llu. IH 

fJU J-KUtiJtA, w fiECfi-FbT 

TJf «tJC«kU{£l , I isn 

r«Cl jf. rfirwrfm, a*r Mfpddo 
f^l II W, 1W. 115, 

lf7. ISO. 

T*H -Ommfh* t 71 
T4S Klrnn* | fft 

r^r 11 iw, iu 

tfU -WjJLis- tJ. » Vti^“ 

Tttr ^ llu. no 

T J «-Sutfia. Ht irfidw 
TdJ ZflJb4v^ W A*hmt. 

7^ Gw. IS *7*9, t7 r HU 1BL W- 
Tir^k ■» fBrftbt. 

tsHil. M* 1^ SH.nJL 
Ui, 11*9. M, S6 r IH. 

ZWjtrk If tlf, tM 
iJowv. Hi TiJLU. 

| 199. 


INDEX OF SCfUPTUHAL REFERENCES 


Gruiu 

Hr 7-U. * 1M 

iif, l m 

ft* 1ft, 1 334 

1: i. II 33. m 

■4 4. 1 N 

t it a*, i-n 

w i i» 

M. 4i0. M, Ifti 

If: 14. 1 353 

fl N, II 17ft imp 

34; It 1 1« 

7: 11. IB 

Ml ft*. 11*4 

10, If ITS, IS! 

». i IM 

If: 1-i. i i» 


11: LDft 1 ITS 

3ft ftl. 1 It* 

11 rr-ift; o. 1 in 

It If, I IH 

It ft, 1 SSI 

tfr. U, 1 14* 

Jft: 10 11» 

». m 1 m 

ii. li sa, in 

U ftO. | 1*4 

u; o, Ini 

Hs it ; ■» 

ft5: 43-1*, 1 144 

14: lit 1 5ft 

,V* 

N: 1H. 1 1U 

4: li-fl, 1 144 

in i I m 

11: ff llH . JB 

11: IS. t*. II IT, il 

IS: 53, 1 m 

11- 1-ft 1174 

Isa 

IT, t F 1 143 

ft- s, 1.1 in 

It: ft, Ift 1 1W 

11: B, 1 lift 

in*. l« 

ft 14, in* 

1J ft 1 135 

ft: M ». IISH 


ft* lift 

Is tflH 

M. T-», 1 IBS 

ft: 1. 1 m 

31: 1ft. 1 174 

14: 17, 1 147 

S4, 111 

11: ft 1 IM 

Me ft 1 171 

34 ft], 1 144 

Sfl. 9Q. 1 J1 

If: C|, fl 19* 

1 ft IMi. 1 in 

1ft: 11. 1144 

4ft: 7, 1 147 

¥)■ iTt, fin 

« If. 1190 

it: im, I in 

ft 3B, 1 1*7 

15: fl-lft 11» 

«: «, 1, H. «. Ii7 

M: 11, 1 S3 

4* H, 141 

A 

47 : 3. 1 1 w 

ft: IS. I» 

FwiAu 

4: 4-ft 1 H 

1; it 1» 

H il« 3M 

4. t*«, t SI 

«-. 7 a l m 

ih ul H it. ift. ii 

34. II IMf 

17: 11 ISO 

1*: ait I « 

■0. WJ It 1 

lo. ser. l bo 

»: tfl. 1 IS* 

Hi 1ft til®, 174 

Cl: 1 ft ft, 3f, 1 147 

1*41. 1 111 

1] - Si 1 HH 

U- m. f 141 


Ut> 



304 VliT mxjln 

THERE ATOPfB? 

I S: IS, U. 1 40 

11, 1 1ft* 

t*c jv. 1 m 

ifc Ift | I at 

tv-, m, | n 

II It, 1 IB 

Ik ft 44, i i« 

Jrt A'mfi 


S: 144. 3 4. E tl 

1- 1644 1«S 

B: 1, IlSH GL 

1: It, Bl . |19 

■:*,«, It71 

1: ti tt. II « r ]BJ 

l: J, E I7t 

IS *T-3ft El % W r 7ft IW 

7:11,141 

t: 11. f IM 

ft 17,57, 1 1+0 

V 91, lit 

9 13. E 14 

Mu 

ft It It | S3 

i, Hot. EW 

B: 14.17, 1101 

4: IS, 1 1Tt 

ft: Id. 1 Tt 

i Sfl. 117i 

ft. It 1 14V 

t. i«. iifp I m 

BilU, |H 

ft 14. 1 HI 

10 tt, ( 35 

* 44-44, 1 BB 

Hi 5. S3. 1 ISO 

SO: t, 1 ISO 

111 7. 1 IW 

Us «4. 1 ]« 

Ifc I n, (14 

II: #4. II M. «| 

14: MP. 1 ISO 

13: t. 1 IV? 

14 tst, 1 1 S 

IS: IS, E m 

m It t iH 

14:19, 1144 

14: llv 1 110 

to, Em 

14 fft «. 1 147 

it E l4 

14: aif, | |U 

n. E i m 

Ift IT. I 145 

lit i^mut 

18: IB, |E IUi U0 

l: 9, 1 133 

18 ]&. ti.fi. 40. ElVS 

1; *4 i 33 

fl. 1 IM 

fl: S. I 133 

«p 1 TT 

J 1-7, 1 IIB 

at IB, 1 its 

7. E IW 

tt 44. E ISO 

7- U. E MW 
ft E IK 

fmd K±i 

IV: 10, 1 ISO 

3. IE 81. 1B7 

13: 1 Bfl. 1 73 

* IB, 1141 

IB: ft. 1 

ft: ft-7: tt. : 77 

VI, E 33 

ft: 7-35. 1 1PT 

fS: Ift E ITS 

ft n «-», l it 

td: D, J 1BC 

i. 177 

tt: 7, 1 143 

10 11. 1 lid 

»■ lfp 1 1TJ 

10- Stt. E TT 

JJ: I0y E ISO 

it iw. i n 

11: 10. lf P E lie 

is: id, in 


13-3. 1 174 

IS5 iftf. i 7ft 

1:11, 1 55 

It T-ft | 7ft 

4= 0. 1143 

17: 1-4, 84, 1 7B 

fc 8. t ns 

IB-10, II 11. 44. 70. 188 

4: 11, (41 

ifc IT. t m 

7: V, E li 

t& T, 4 174 

ft tt, 1 ft 

84 » r IE 84, St, 174 


ivdkx or scwrrutu. umuxcc 


3ft5 


tit I V, l» 

tl: t. Mm 
ta. 1in 
0 : 4 - 7 . I l» 

(9; T, II 1*1. 154 
«a: |& I lift 
0: 13. I 1» 

0: 15. I 15* 

«; 49-35, fl 7*. SOT 
U: ETA, II HI, 111 


fft&W. Ef Iftl, 1* 
l« 4ft I IT* 
lot, K 1*4 
1U; 5. I mi 

1 EH; *0 t tfl] 

IS*: X IHT 

is*, ft ifpfl 

145; 19, I m 

Prwrnb* 

44- 1741*: *ft I l» 

Si: LoJS, I IU 


Iff CillMJff 

1: 4ft I 14* 

I: », 114S 

* s*. I tm 

10 : I*. IMtf, ISO 
11: ft 4 175 
It; 4 ft E 1 T 3 
l& ft I 14* 
lit 1*. I M 

r*4 C**Mm 

X I 1*4 

||: 5=14. | |Qt 
li: ff r II l«„ 101 
«fl; IL I ET5 

If 4, I IH 
Vi 15 . E t* 

ft ft) *4 

ffA-^ 

ft 1, f s* 

fc IQ I S3 

li 

1 - 4 , 4 Ilf 

ft *k E mi 

* IMft f IH 
•: ft. I Iftl 

If: 1H.1V 
If: ftj | 1 P.I 
rt Ilf, tl 1BJ, 1*4 
41 r t ill 

15 I*. I 54 
0 . If IM. IH 
tii 7. | 175 
45: ft. I 178 
4 ft II 155 , I 7 f 
ft I If* 

Me ft », I 54 
74: 14. Hill. 1*4 
»: 14. I 5* 
ff; V, i 111 
M: ST, | Iftl 


I IH 


5ai*f mj Stfvmrn* 


5 ; ft, I 1*4 
«' f. «. I in 
7 : t-lft I 7 * 
ft: Q. I 179 
14 ! 9 - 11 . I 15 * 

U: 1145 t IH 
14 : 15 * 1*4 
14 : St, I IT* 

17 : Ilf, I iM 
If: l r I 111 
« I 1* 

If: 1ft ff lit 
ti\ I, ft IHL, 1*4 
»: I- 5 . i 7 * 

M: ft, I IT* 

31 ; 14 . 11 * 

55S *. IW 
M 1 IM 
Sfi: tl. 1175 
45 ; 4 -ft I 17 * 

Jmm fill 

ft ft f 1*5 

7 : It. 14 . IE 1 ft Iff 

ft 1ft II 14*. 1*0 

ff: ft } S3 

■«: -fl. ft | IH 

40 : tftftl. 1133 . IT* 

9 i: Sft 1 1 « 

3 f: ft 4 ft 1141 
Jt: ft 1ft I H 
44 : 1 AI. I IH 
44 : Iftlfttft JltS 
It: l ift | IH 
4 ft 11 , EM 
its rr, I *■ 


1: * 11*4 

14 14. 9ft I ITT 

li: 3, e m 


Etrkid 




WHAT MEA* T Mt-SE HTOSHSi ? 


1, 1 ITT 

3i: |7-K. | 139 
SS», 140 
«-4ft 144 


*: 1 1 111 
ft 11, 1 |U 


T; 0, 19, tL | 

0:1. 1 IBS 

II: t, fin 

II: 31. t ITT 
li: 11, 1 IT? 


fe VBL f 140 
*: 14. 1 m 

4: 19, 10: 0. 1 43 


9. 11, I LTJ 

fl O, K ITt 

Januk 

11 

JTiAw 

l! 1, 13* 

1: 3. | 111 

9- IT, K M 

fl4 V pkt 

If 1, f #4 

3 

iMhlHA 

\ 1. t« 

It: II. 1 lie 


Hr* TctriwEfl 



I: Sf. 3ft 1175 
ft *1, T1™ 

1: M, t Iffl 
7: S5.8: ll r I Si 

•: ssr, i « 

Ifc Pft I 0$ 

|K: | 14 

Art* 

ft ft hH 
^ «, 1 11* 

| . &*ft I 44 
10: 13.1 AS 
11; SO, K IM 
If W-0. Ms 
I a, 1 T.1« 

14: |0. I « 

IT: SIT. I UN¬ 
IT 14, fft ! 1M 
17- 1ft I !■* 

10: It, IS 43, flft m 
!*■- SI. I IH 

*(r«t I l?M 

flumfcSJ' 

lr i. I IT 

I H. | 41 

4ft CfmtMv* 

1:10, I 41 
h wr. 14i 
Sft 11. i lil 


ft i, i «f 

t: IH3, | V 

Mmttkiw 

XI 

II: «f. i M 

1c », | L04 


1: Ifl, l« 

0. U. 13. 1 41 


J 1ft 1 41 

«: ft f fft 


4! ft 1 It 

«: 0T. 1 M 


ft 1.1 m 

t ml m 

ft IM*, 1 03 

Mmwk 

* It. 1 IM 

Ift 1. lint 


l U 138i 

E3: If. 1 ITT 


t 14. 1 11® 

14; 1. 1 171 
tft l ift i V 


i i -ft 1 i« 

13: frftffl, Me 

ft If, H 4ft IH 

Imk* 

1“ lftiT. 1 1H 

ii 1ft ftS. M 4ft let 

19: ITT. 1 IM 

li: ft ita 


Ifc B, la, i m 




£p4rjTniu 

C7af[w*tdv 


ILrLftarKHI 



Ttpr CJk/M 

















* JAMAH * £ 

.StucHfln- I 


jHtMt4*T 












LIVING AGE BOOKS 

£<>- m £■ ini a\ rooks ing. 

]7 Union Square We*!* York 3, K, Y_ 


Hit INC mx HOOKS* n new toffot ul ilttXpflnflira €-<fitiuti# fnlMHhril 
Uy mduP’Ian bogus, lift, will contain work* of proven merit on 
liiflory, un, Hlfralurf, thcr>k>p), nml IlibUcnJ kindles a* (hry illn- 
uiin.itv the dcv^lopnacnl of iihri-lpjn iradilioD in the WtsL Aik 
ytiur lionkx'llrr for Uses* fewntLonnd volume*. iTillea Ifclcrl here 
are not nevr * warily availahlt in I he tiritich Empire > 


LAI in in i Liimti At ion or chri&tun ethics by Rvinhobl Niebuhr 
LA2 tiii mi.no of tiii vim by Dorothy Saytr* 

LAI mvstuurm by U\ H, f«ge 

I*A 4 mnimvE rHmsnim in its £oktriihhm#v betting 

by Hudoti fhilimntitt, Living Afte Original 

LAS THE DEUrTENT Clf THE IKJYfL &y CJuiftei U~HI iqiILL 

Introduction hy W, H. Auden 

I. \6 THE IIFXICIOU5 SITl ITIUfS by f*Wi£ 

LA 7 WU\T MFxN THESE MONW? &Y Mffi*r BlUTOtTM 

LAS THE H 1 EVNINO OK KEL L KflR TU0A\ 6 v C. /f. Pflrf'f 

I.A 9 MARTIN LIT HER: feOAD TO HEFOR H ATIO N 
by Heinrich Ba*hm*r 

LAID BfcLMlOt s uftlMA U Livbif Arc Oritiml 

LA 11 ^OTItL ROt RCF.S or HKQMftHATlONAIJSM 

by Richard Niebuhr 

LAIS CHRISTIAN THOUGHT hy ErnM Tfoettrth 









CISN/W ARCHAEOLOGICAL LIBRARY 
NEW DELHI 

-Ifl3ua reoar l. __ 

Catalogue No * *13. S^BiMsoi 


Author — Burrows, MLLUr. 


Title— What * ewi thoB* aton*a.